The Tumor Necrosis Factor Superfamily Member RANKL Suppresses Effector Cytokine Production in Group 3 Innate Lymphoid Cells.

While signals that activate group 3 innate lymphoid cells (ILC3s) have been described, the factors that negatively regulate these cells are less well understood. Here we found that the tumor necrosis factor (TNF) superfamily member receptor activator of nuclear factor κB ligand (RANKL) suppressed ILC3 activity in the intestine. Deletion of RANKL in ILC3s and T cells increased C-C motif chemokine receptor 6 (CCR6)+ ILC3 abundance and enhanced production of interleukin-17A (IL-17A) and IL-22 in response to IL-23 and during infection with the enteric murine pathogen Citrobacter rodentium. Additionally, CCR6+ ILC3s produced higher amounts of the master transcriptional regulator RORγt at steady state in the absence of RANKL. RANKL-mediated suppression was independent of T cells, and instead occurred via interactions between CCR6+ ILC3s that expressed both RANKL and its receptor, RANK. Thus, RANK-RANKL interactions between ILC3s regulate ILC3 abundance and activation, suggesting that cell clustering may control ILC3 activity.

The G9a histone methyltransferase represses osteoclastogenesis and bone resorption by regulating NFATc1 function.

Epigenetic modifications affect cell differentiation via transcriptional regulation. G9a/EHMT2 is an important epigenetic modifier that catalyzes the methylation of histone 3 lysine 9 (H3K9) and interacts with various nuclear proteins. In this study, we investigated the role of G9a in osteoclast differentiation. When we deleted G9a by infection of Cre-expressing adenovirus into bone marrow macrophages (BMMs) from G9afl/fl (Ehmt2fl/fl) and induced osteoclastic differentiation by the addition of macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF) and receptor activator of NF-κB ligand (RANKL), the number of TRAP-positive multinucleated osteoclasts significantly increased compared with control. Furthermore, the mRNA expression of osteoclast markers, TRAP, and cathepsin K, and to a lesser extent, NFATc1, a critical transcription factor, increased in G9a KO cells. Infection of wild-type (WT) G9a-expressing adenovirus in G9a KO cells restored the number of TRAP-positive multinucleated cells. In G9a KO cells, increased nuclear accumulation of NFATc1 protein and decreased H3K9me2 accumulation were observed. Furthermore, ChIP experiments revealed that NFATc1 binding to its target, Ctsk promoter, was enhanced by G9a deletion. For in vivo experiments, we created G9a conditional knock-out (cKO) mice by crossing G9afl/fl mice with Rank Cre/+ (Tnfrsf11aCre/+) mice, in which G9a is deleted in osteoclast lineage cells. The trabecular bone volume was significantly reduced in female G9a cKO mice. The serum concentration of the C-terminal telopeptide of type I collagen (CTX), a bone-resorbing indicator, was higher in G9a cKO mice. In addition, osteoclasts differentiated from G9a cKO BMMs exhibited greater bone-resorbing activity. Our findings suggest that G9a plays a repressive role in osteoclastogenesis by modulating NFATc1 function.

Wnt family members regulating osteogenesis and their origins.

Wnt signaling plays an important role in the regulation of bone metabolism. Wnt activates the ß-catenin-mediated canonical pathway and ß-catenin-independent non-canonical pathway. When Wnt ligands bind to the co-receptors low density lipoprotein receptor-related protein (Lrp)5 or Lrp6, and a seven-transmembrane receptor frizzled, the canonical pathway is activated. On the other hand, when Wnt ligands bind to the receptor complex consisting of the co-receptor receptor tyrosine kinase-like orphan receptor (Ror)1 and Ror2 or Ryk and frizzled, the non-canonical pathway is activated. An analysis of loss-of-function and gain-of-function mutations in molecules involved in Wnt signaling (ligands, receptors, and inhibitors) has revealed the mechanisms by which Wnt signaling regulates bone metabolism. In this review, based on transcriptome analyses of Wnt expression in bone tissues including single cell RNA sequence analysis and previous literatures, we herein introduce and discussed the latest findings on the mechanisms by which Wnt ligand mutations impair bone metabolism, especially bone formation.

Nuclear Resonance Vibrational Spectroscopy Definition of Peroxy Intermediates in Catechol Dioxygenases: Factors that Determine Extra- versus Intradiol Cleavage.

The extradiol dioxygenases (EDOs) and intradiol dioxygenases (IDOs) are nonheme iron enzymes that catalyze the oxidative aromatic ring cleavage of catechol substrates, playing an essential role in the carbon cycle. The EDOs and IDOs utilize very different FeII and FeIII active sites to catalyze the regiospecificity in their catechol ring cleavage products. The factors governing this difference in cleavage have remained undefined. The EDO homoprotocatechuate 2,3-dioxygenase (HPCD) and IDO protocatechuate 3,4-dioxygenase (PCD) provide an opportunity to understand this selectivity, as key O2 intermediates have been trapped for both enzymes. Nuclear resonance vibrational spectroscopy (in conjunction with density functional theory calculations) is used to define the geometric and electronic structures of these intermediates as FeII-alkylhydroperoxo (HPCD) and FeIII-alkylperoxo (PCD) species. Critically, in both intermediates, the initial peroxo bond orientation is directed toward extradiol product formation. Reaction coordinate calculations were thus performed to evaluate both the extra- and intradiol O-O cleavage for the simple organic alkylhydroperoxo and for the FeII and FeIII metal catalyzed reactions. These results show the FeII-alkylhydroperoxo (EDO) intermediate undergoes facile extradiol O-O bond homolysis due to its extra e-, while for the FeIII-alkylperoxo (IDO) intermediate the extradiol cleavage involves a large barrier and would yield the incorrect extradiol product. This prompted our evaluation of a viable mechanism to rearrange the FeIII-alkylperoxo IDO intermediate for intradiol cleavage, revealing a key role in the rebinding of the displaced Tyr447 ligand in this rearrangement, driven by the proton delivery necessary for O-O bond cleavage.

Sclerostin blockade promotes bone metastases of Wnt-responsive breast cancer cells.

The secreted protein sclerostin is primarily produced by osteocytes and suppresses osteoblast differentiation and function by inhibiting the canonical Wnt signaling pathway. Genetic and pharmacological inhibition of sclerostin has been shown to increase bone formation and an anti-sclerostin antibody has been clinically approved for the treatment of osteoporosis. Canonical Wnt signaling is also involved in the progression of several types of cancers including breast cancer. Here, we studied the effects of sclerostin inhibition on the development of bone metastases of breast cancer using mouse models. TOPFLASH assay and real-time PCR analysis of AXIN2, a target of canonical Wnt signaling, revealed that, among four cell lines tested, MDA-MB-231 human breast cancer cells responded highly to the canonical Wnt ligand Wnt3a, whereas other cell lines exhibited marginal responses. Consistent with these results, treatment with an anti-sclerostin antibody significantly increased the bone metastases of MDA-MB-231 but not those of other breast cancer cells. Immunohistochemical studies demonstrated that an anti-sclerostin antibody induced intracellular accumulation of ß-catenin in bone-colonized MDA-MB-231 cells. Suspension culture assays showed that Wnt3a accelerated the tumorsphere formation of MDA-MB-231 cells, whereas monolayer cell proliferation and migration were not affected. Furthermore, the numbers of osteoclasts and their precursor cells in bone metastases of MDA-MB-231 were significantly increased in mice treated with an anti-sclerostin antibody. These results collectively suggest that sclerostin blockade activates canonical Wnt signaling in ligand-responsive breast cancer cells metastasized to bone, thereby increasing bone metastases, likely to have been mediated at least in part by enhancing stem cell-like properties of cancer cells and osteoclastogenesis.

Osteoclasts adapt to physioxia perturbation through DNA demethylation.

Oxygen plays an important role in diverse biological processes. However, since quantitation of the partial pressure of cellular oxygen in vivo is challenging, the extent of oxygen perturbation in situ and its cellular response remains underexplored. Using two-photon phosphorescence lifetime imaging microscopy, we determine the physiological range of oxygen tension in osteoclasts of live mice. We find that oxygen tension ranges from 17.4 to 36.4 mmHg, under hypoxic and normoxic conditions, respectively. Physiological normoxia thus corresponds to 5% and hypoxia to 2% oxygen in osteoclasts. Hypoxia in this range severely limits osteoclastogenesis, independent of energy metabolism and hypoxia-inducible factor activity. We observe that hypoxia decreases ten-eleven translocation (TET) activity. Tet2/3 cooperatively induces Prdm1 expression via oxygen-dependent DNA demethylation, which in turn activates NFATc1 required for osteoclastogenesis. Taken together, our results reveal that TET enzymes, acting as functional oxygen sensors, regulate osteoclastogenesis within the physiological range of oxygen tension, thus opening new avenues for research on in vivo response to oxygen perturbation.

Sclerostin deficiency effectively promotes bone morphogenetic protein-2-induced ectopic bone formation.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: Severe periodontitis causes alveolar bone resorption, resulting in tooth loss. Developments of tissue regeneration therapy that can restore alveolar bone mass are desired for periodontal disease. The application of bone morphogenetic protein-2 (BMP-2) has been attempted for bone fractures and severe alveolar bone loss. BMP-2 reportedly induces sclerostin expression, an inhibitor of Wnt signals, that attenuates bone acquisition. However, the effect of sclerostin-deficiency on BMP-2-induced bone regeneration has not been fully elucidated. We investigated BMP-2-induced ectopic bones in Sost-knockout (KO) mice. METHODS: rhBMP-2 were implanted into the thighs of C57BL/6 (WT) and Sost-KO male mice at 8 weeks of age. The BMP-2-induced ectopic bones in these mice were examined on days 14 and 28 after implantation. RESULTS: Immunohistochemical and quantitative RT-PCR analyses showed that BMP-2-induced ectopic bones expressed sclerostin in osteocytes on days 14 and 28 after implantation in Sost-Green reporter mice. Micro-computed tomography analysis revealed that BMP-2-induced ectopic bones in Sost-KO mice showed a significant increased relative bone volume and bone mineral density (WT = 468 mg/cm3 , Sost-KO = 602 mg/cm3 ) compared with those in WT mice on day 14 after implantation. BMP-2-induced ectopic bones in Sost-KO mice showed an increased horizontal cross-sectional bone area on day 28 after implantation. Immunohistochemical staining showed that BMP-2-induced ectopic bones in Sost-KO mice had an increased number of osteoblasts with osterix-positive nuclei compared with those in WT mice on days 14 and 28 after implantation. CONCLUSION: Sclerostin deficiency increased bone mineral density in BMP-2-induced ectopic bones.

Low-Temperature Hydrogenation of CO2 to Methanol in Water on ZnO-Supported CuAu Nanoalloys.

Optimizing processes and materials for the valorization of CO2 to hydrogen carriers or platform chemicals is a key step for mitigating global warming and for the sustainable use of renewables. We report here on the hydrogenation of CO2 in water on ZnO-supported CuAu nanoalloys, based on ≤7 mol % Au. Cux Auy /ZnO catalysts were characterized using 197 Au Mössbauer, in situ X-ray absorption (Au LIII - and Cu K-edges), and ambient pressure X-ray photoelectron (APXP) spectroscopic methods together with X-ray diffraction and high-resolution electron microscopy. At 200 °C, the conversion of CO2 showed a significant increase by 34 times (from 0.1 to 3.4 %) upon increasing Cu93 Au7 loading from 1 to 10 wt %, while maintaining methanol selectivity at 100 %. Limited CO selectivity (4-6 %) was observed upon increasing temperature up to 240 °C but associated with a ≈3-fold increase in CO2 conversion. Based on APXPS during CO2 hydrogenation in an H2 O-rich mixture, Cu segregates preferentially to the surface in a mainly metallic state, while slightly charged Au submerges deeper into the subsurface region. These results and detailed structural analyses are topics of the present contribution.

Differential MHC-II expression and phagocytic functions of embryo-derived cardiac macrophages in the course of myocardial infarction in mice.

In mouse myocardial infarction, we combined lineage tracing of cardiac macrophages, mapping their ontogeny, with an analysis of their phenotype and phagocytic functions. While embryo-derived macrophages were most abundant in homeostasis, bone marrow-derived MHC-IIlo macrophages increased in both numbers and phagocytic capacity to clear necrotic cardiomyocytes early after ischemia/perfusion injury.

Inhibitor of protein kinase N3 suppresses excessive bone resorption in ovariectomized mice.

INTRODUCTION: The long-term inhibition of bone resorption suppresses new bone formation because these processes are coupled during physiological bone remodeling. The development of anti-bone-resorbing agents that do not suppress bone formation is urgently needed. We previously demonstrated that Wnt5a-Ror2 signaling in mature osteoclasts promoted bone-resorbing activity through protein kinase N3 (Pkn3). The p38 MAPK inhibitor SB202190 reportedly inhibited Pkn3 with a low Ki value (0.004 µM). We herein examined the effects of SB202190 on osteoclast differentiation and function in vitro and in vivo. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Bone marrow cells were cultured in the presence of M-csf and GST-Rankl to differentiate into multinucleated osteoclasts. Osteoclasts were treated with increasing concentrations of SB202190. For in vivo study, 10-week-old female mice were subjected to ovariectomy (OVX). OVX mice were intraperitoneally administered with a Pkn3 inhibitor at 2 mg/kg or vehicle for 4 weeks, and bone mass was analyzed by micro-CT. RESULTS: SB202190 suppressed the auto-phosphorylation of Pkn3 in osteoclast cultures. SB202190 significantly inhibited the formation of resorption pits in osteoclast cultures by suppressing actin ring formation. SB202190 reduced c-Src activity in osteoclast cultures without affecting the interaction between Pkn3 and c-Src. A treatment with SB202190 attenuated OVX-induced bone loss without affecting the number of osteoclasts or bone formation by osteoblasts. CONCLUSIONS: Our results showed that Pkn3 has potential as a therapeutic target for bone loss due to increased bone resorption. SB202190 is promising as a lead compound for the development of novel anti-bone-resorbing agents.

WNT/RYK signaling restricts goblet cell differentiation during lung development and repair.

Goblet cell metaplasia and mucus hypersecretion are observed in many pulmonary diseases, including asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and cystic fibrosis. However, the regulation of goblet cell differentiation remains unclear. Here, we identify a regulator of this process in an N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea (ENU) screen for modulators of postnatal lung development; Ryk mutant mice exhibit lung inflammation, goblet cell hyperplasia, and mucus hypersecretion. RYK functions as a WNT coreceptor, and, in the developing lung, we observed high RYK expression in airway epithelial cells and moderate expression in mesenchymal cells as well as in alveolar epithelial cells. From transcriptomic analyses and follow-up studies, we found decreased WNT/ß-catenin signaling activity in the mutant lung epithelium. Epithelial-specific Ryk deletion causes goblet cell hyperplasia and mucus hypersecretion but not inflammation, while club cell-specific Ryk deletion in adult stages leads to goblet cell hyperplasia and mucus hypersecretion during regeneration. We also found that the airway epithelium of COPD patients often displays goblet cell metaplastic foci, as well as reduced RYK expression. Altogether, our findings reveal that RYK plays important roles in maintaining the balance between airway epithelial cell populations during development and repair, and that defects in RYK expression or function may contribute to the pathogenesis of human lung diseases.

Epidemiology of respiratory syncytial virus in Japan: A nationwide claims database analysis.

BACKGROUND: Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is a major cause of hospitalization for bronchiolitis and pneumonia in infancy. In Japan, limited data are publicly available on RSV epidemiology and clinical characteristics among infants. METHODS: This retrospective study described RSV incidence, seasonality, patient characteristics, resource use, and clinical outcomes among Japanese children <2 years from January 2017 through December 2018. The RSV cases were identified using the Japanese Medical Data Center database. RESULTS: In the database, 9,711 and 8,509 RSV patients <2 years were identified in 2017 and 2018, respectively. Of these, 25% required hospitalization. Ninety percent of hospitalized patients did not have a known RSV risk factor. Nineteen percent of hospitalized patients experienced dehydration, and 12% had acute respiratory failure. Hospitalization lasted 1 week on average and 7% required some type of mechanical ventilation. The peak of hospitalizations occurred at 2 months. The incidence of RSV hospitalization in children <2 years was 23.2 per 1,000 person-years, which increased to 35.4 per 1,000 for infants <6 months. This age group accounted for 40% of all RSV-associated hospitalizations among children <2 years. CONCLUSIONS: Roughly one-fourth of all RSV patients <2 years were hospitalized. Ninety percent of these did not have an underlying risk condition. This underscores that RSV can cause serious disease among all young children. Three to four out of every 100 Japanese children <6 months were hospitalized for RSV, and this age group accounted for ~40% of all RSV-associated hospitalizations. Novel and broad-based RSV prevention strategies, especially those targeting young infants, are needed.

Positive and Negative Regulators of Sclerostin Expression.

Sclerostin is secreted from osteocytes, binds to the Wnt co-receptor Lrp5/6, and affects the interaction between Wnt ligands and Lrp5/6, which inhibits Wnt/ß-catenin signals and suppresses bone formation. Sclerostin plays an important role in the preservation of bone mass by functioning as a negative regulator of bone formation. A sclerostin deficiency causes sclerosteosis, which is characterized by an excess bone mass with enhanced bone formation in humans and mice. The expression of sclerostin is positively and negatively regulated by many factors, which also govern bone metabolism. Positive and negative regulators of sclerostin expression and their effects are introduced and discussed herein based on recent and previous findings, including our research.

Role of noncanonical Wnt ligands and Ror-family receptor tyrosine kinases in the development, regeneration, and diseases of the musculoskeletal system.

The Ror-family receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs), consisting of Ror1 and Ror2, play crucial roles in morphogenesis and formation of various tissues/organs, including the bones and skeletal muscles, the so-called musculoskeletal system, during embryonic development, by acting as receptors or coreceptors for a noncanonical Wnt protein Wnt5a. Furthermore, several lines of evidence have indicated that Ror1 and/or Ror2 play critical roles in the regeneration and maintenance of the musculoskeletal system in adults. Considering the anatomical and functional relationship between the skeleton and skeletal muscles, their structural and functional association might be tightly regulated during their embryonic development, development after birth, and their regeneration after injury in adults. Importantly, in addition to their congenital anomalies, much attention has been paid onto the age-related disorders of the musculoskeletal system, including osteopenia and sarcopenia, which affect severely the quality of life. In this article, we overview recent advances in our understanding of the roles of Ror1- and/or Ror2-mediated signaling in the embryonic development, regeneration in adults, and congenital and age-related disorders of the musculoskeletal system and discuss possible therapeutic approaches to locomotive syndromes by modulating Ror1- and/or Ror2-mediated signaling.

Nuclear Resonance Vibrational Spectroscopic Definition of the Fe(IV)2 Intermediate Q in Methane Monooxygenase and Its Reactivity.

Methanotrophic bacteria utilize the nonheme diiron enzyme soluble methane monooxygenase (sMMO) to convert methane to methanol in the first step of their metabolic cycle under copper-limiting conditions. The structure of the sMMO Fe(IV)2 intermediate Q responsible for activating the inert C-H bond of methane (BDE = 104 kcal/mol) remains controversial, with recent studies suggesting both "open" and "closed" core geometries for its active site. In this study, we employ nuclear resonance vibrational spectroscopy (NRVS) to probe the geometric and electronic structure of intermediate Q at cryogenic temperatures. These data demonstrate that Q decays rapidly during the NRVS experiment. Combining data from several years of measurements, we derive the NRVS vibrational features of intermediate Q as well as its cryoreduced decay product. A library of 90 open and closed core models of intermediate Q is generated using density functional theory to analyze the NRVS data of Q and its cryoreduced product as well as prior spectroscopic data on Q. Our analysis reveals that a subset of closed core models reproduce these newly acquired NRVS data as well as prior data. The reaction coordinate with methane is also evaluated using both closed and open core models of Q. These studies show that the potent reactivity of Q toward methane resides in the "spectator oxo" of its Fe(IV)2O2 core, in contrast to nonheme mononuclear Fe(IV)═O enzyme intermediates that H atoms abstract from weaker C-H bonds.

Osteoclast differentiation by RANKL and OPG signaling pathways.

INTRODUCTION: In bone tissue, bone resorption by osteoclasts and bone formation by osteoblasts are repeated continuously. Osteoclasts are multinucleated cells that derive from monocyte-/macrophage-lineage cells and resorb bone. In contrast, osteoblasts mediate osteoclastogenesis by expressing receptor activator of nuclear factor-kappa B ligand (RANKL), which is expressed as a membrane-associated cytokine. Osteoprotegerin (OPG) is a soluble RANKL decoy receptor that is predominantly produced by osteoblasts and which prevents osteoclast formation and osteoclastic bone resorption by inhibiting the RANKL-RANKL receptor interaction. MATERIALS AND METHODS: In this review, we would like to summarize our experimental results on signal transduction that regulates the expression of RANKL and OPG. RESULTS: Using OPG gene-deficient mice, we have demonstrated that OPG and sclerostin produced by osteocytes play an important role in the maintenance of cortical and alveolar bone. In addition, it was shown that osteoclast-derived leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF) reduces the expression of sclerostin in osteocytes and promotes bone formation. WP9QY (W9) is a peptide that was designed to be structurally similar to one of the cysteine-rich TNF-receptortype-I domains. Addition of the W9 peptide to bone marrow culture simultaneously inhibited osteoclast differentiation and stimulated osteoblastic cell proliferation. An anti-sialic acid-binding immunoglobulin-like lectin 15 (Siglec-15) antibody inhibited multinucleated osteoclast formation induced by RANKL and macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF). Pit-forming activity of osteoclasts was also inhibited by the anti-Siglec-15 antibody. In addition, anti-Siglec-15 antibody treatment stimulated the appearance of osteoblasts in cultures of mouse bone marrow cells in the presence of RANKL and M-CSF. CONCLUSIONS: Bone mass loss depends on the RANK-RANKL-OPG system, which is a major regulatory system of osteoclast differentiation induction, activation, and survival.

Effect of the Electron Density of the Heme Fe Atom on the Nature of Fe-O2 Bonding in Oxy Myoglobin.

Mössbauer spectroscopy has been used to characterize oxygenated myoglobins (oxy Mbs) reconstituted with native and chemically modified 57Fe-enriched heme cofactors with different electron densities of the heme Fe atom (ρFe) and to elucidate the effect of a change in the ρFe on the nature of the bond between heme Fe and oxygen (O2), i.e., the Fe-O2 bond, in the protein. Quadrupole splitting (ΔEQ) was found to decrease with decreasing ρFe, and the observed ρFe-dependent ΔEQ confirmed an increase in the contribution of the ferric-superoxide (Fe3+-O2-) form to the resonance hybrid of the Fe-O2 fragment with decreasing ρFe. These observations explicitly accounted for the lowering of O2 affinity of the protein due to an increase in the O2 dissociation rate and a decrease in the autoxidation reaction rate of oxy Mb through decreasing H+ affinity of the bound ligand with decreasing ρFe. Therefore, the present study demonstrated the mechanism underlying the electronic control of O2 affinity and the autoxidation of the protein through the heme electronic structure. Carbon monoxide (CO) adducts of reconstituted Mbs (CO-Mbs) were similarly characterized, and we found that the resonance between the two canonical forms of the Fe-CO fragment was also affected by a change in ρFe. Thus, the nature of the Fe-ligand bond in the protein was found to be affected by the ρFe.

Nuclear Resonance Vibrational Spectroscopic Definition of the Facial Triad FeIV═O Intermediate in Taurine Dioxygenase: Evaluation of Structural Contributions to Hydrogen Atom Abstraction.

The α-ketoglutarate (αKG)-dependent oxygenases catalyze a diverse range of chemical reactions using a common high-spin FeIV═O intermediate that, in most reactions, abstract a hydrogen atom from the substrate. Previously, the FeIV═O intermediate in the αKG-dependent halogenase SyrB2 was characterized by nuclear resonance vibrational spectroscopy (NRVS) and density functional theory (DFT) calculations, which demonstrated that it has a trigonal-pyramidal geometry with the scissile C-H bond of the substrate calculated to be perpendicular to the Fe-O bond. Here, we have used NRVS and DFT calculations to show that the FeIV═O complex in taurine dioxygenase (TauD), the αKG-dependent hydroxylase in which this intermediate was first characterized, also has a trigonal bipyramidal geometry but with an aspartate residue replacing the equatorial halide of the SyrB2 intermediate. Computational analysis of hydrogen atom abstraction by square pyramidal, trigonal bipyramidal, and six-coordinate FeIV═O complexes in two different substrate orientations (one more along [σ channel] and another more perpendicular [π channel] to the Fe-O bond) reveals similar activation barriers. Thus, both substrate approaches to all three geometries are competent in hydrogen atom abstraction. The equivalence in reactivity between the two substrate orientations arises from compensation of the promotion energy (electronic excitation within the d manifold) required to access the π channel by the significantly larger oxyl character present in the pπ orbital oriented toward the substrate, which leads to an earlier transition state along the C-H coordinate.

Regulatory mechanisms of sclerostin expression during bone remodeling.

Osteocytes are embedded in bone matrices and are connected to each other to respond to mechanical loading on bone. Recent studies have demonstrated the roles of mechanical loading in bone accrual. Bone responds to mechanical loading by decreasing the expression of sclerostin, an inhibitor of Wnt/ß-catenin signals, in osteocytes. This increases bone mass because the activation of Wnt/ß-catenin signals in bone microenvironments promotes bone formation and suppresses bone resorption. Thus, in recent years, sclerostin have attracted increasing attention in bone metabolism. However, the regulatory mechanism of sclerostin expression during bone remodeling has not been fully elucidated. In this review, we summarized the regulation of bone formation and resorption by Wnt signals, a Wnt/ß-catenin signal inhibitor sclerostin, and molecular mechanisms by which the expression of sclerostin is suppressed by mechanical loading and parathyroid hormone. We also discuss a possibility that osteoclasts suppress the expression of sclerostin during bone remodeling, which in turn, promote bone formation. The effectiveness of an anti-sclerostin antibody with anti-dickkopf-1 antibody for increasing bone mass was discussed.

The Shisa3 knockout mouse exhibits normal bone phenotype.

Wnt signaling is important for both skeletal development and bone disease, with Wnt inhibitory factors playing critical roles in bone metabolism. SHISA3 blocks the maturation and transportation of Frizzled receptors to the cell surface, thereby inhibiting the Wnt/ß-catenin signaling pathway in lung cancer. However, the function of Shisa3 in bone biology remains uninvestigated. This study found that Shisa3 was strongly expressed in the calvarial bones of mice, especially in osteoblasts. In addition, adenovirus-mediated gene transfer of murine Shisa3 significantly inhibited Wnt3a-induced nuclear translocation of ß-catenin and mRNA expression of the Wnt target gene Axin2. In bone phenotype assessments of Shisa3 knockout (Shisa3 KO) mice, micro-computed tomography, mRNA expressions of osteoblast markers, and skeletal preparations all displayed no significant differences compared with Shisa3 wild-type mice. mRNA expression analysis of canonical Wnt signaling target genes (Axin2, Lef1, Dkk1, and Tnfrsf11b) in calvarial bones at P0.5 also revealed no significant findings. In Axin2Cre/ERT2 knock-in mice, the number of Axin2-expressing cells in the calvariae of Shisa3 KO and control mice were comparable. Thus, there appears to be a redundancy in the function of Shisa3 in bone development, likely with other Shisa family members.