Restriction of secretory granule motion near the plasma membrane of chromaffin cells.

We used total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy to study quantitatively the motion and distribution of secretory granules near the plasma membrane (PM) of living bovine chromaffin cells. Within the approximately 300-nm region measurably illuminated by the evanescent field resulting from total internal reflection, granules are preferentially concentrated close to the PM. Granule motion normal to the substrate (the z direction) is much slower than would be expected from free Brownian motion, is strongly restricted over tens of nanometer distances, and tends to reverse directions within 0.5 s. The z-direction diffusion coefficients of granules decrease continuously by two orders of magnitude within less than a granule diameter of the PM as granules approach the PM. These analyses suggest that a system of tethers or a heterogeneous matrix severely limits granule motion in the immediate vicinity of the PM. Transient expression of the light chains of tetanus toxin and botulinum toxin A did not disrupt the restricted motion of granules near the PM, indicating that SNARE proteins SNAP-25 and VAMP are not necessary for the decreased mobility. However, the lack of functional SNAREs on the plasma or granule membranes in such cells reduces the time that some granules spend immediately adjacent to the PM.

Single subunits of the GABAA receptor form ion channels with properties of the native receptor.

The alpha and beta subunits of the gamma-aminobutyric acidA (GABAA) receptor were expressed individually in Xenopus oocytes by injection of RNA synthesized from their cloned DNAs. GABA-sensitive chloride channels were detected several days after injection with any one of three different alpha RNAs (alpha 1, alpha 2, and alpha 3) or with beta RNA. The channels induced by each of the alpha-subunit RNAs were indistinguishable, they had multiple conductance levels (10, 19, 28, and 42 picosiemens), and their activity was potentiated by pentobarbital and inhibited by picrotoxin. The beta channels usually expressed poorly but showed similar single channel conductance levels (10, 18, 27, and 40 picosiemens), potentiation by pentobarbital and inhibition by picrotoxin. The finding that both alpha and beta subunits, examined separately, form GABA-sensitive ion channels with permeation properties and regulatory sites characteristic of the native receptor suggests that the amino acid sequences that confer these properties are within the homologous domains shared by the subunits.

Neuropeptide inhibition of voltage-gated calcium channels mediated by mobilization of intracellular calcium.

Many neurotransmitters and hormones regulate secretion from endocrine cells and neurons by modulating voltage-gated Ca2+ channels. One proposed mechanism of neurotransmitter inhibition involves protein kinase C, activated by diacylglycerol, a product of phosphatidyl-inositol inositol hydrolysis. Here we show that thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH), a neuropeptide that modulates hormone secretion from pituitary tumor cells, inhibits Ca2+ channels via the other limb of the phosphatidylinositol signaling system: TRH causes inositol trisphosphate-triggered Ca2+ release from intracellular organelles, thus causing Ca2(+)-dependent inactivation of Ca2+ channels. Elevation of intracellular Ca2+ concentration is coincident with the onset of TRH-induced inhibition and is necessary and sufficient for its occurrence. The inhibition is blocked by introducing Ca2+ buffers into cells and mimicked by a variety of agents that mobilize Ca2+. Treatments that suppress protein kinase C have no effect on the inhibition. Hence inactivation of Ca2+ channels occurs not only as a result of Ca2+ influx through plasma membrane channels, but also via neurotransmitter-induced Ca2+ mobilization. This phenomenon may be common but overlooked because of the routine use of Ca2+ buffers in patch-clamp electrodes.

Dexamethasone rapidly induces Kv1.5 K+ channel gene transcription and expression in clonal pituitary cells.

Glucocorticoids specifically increase Kv1.5 K+ channel mRNA in normal and clonal (GH3) rat pituitary cells. Here, we demonstrate that dexamethasone, a glucocorticoid agonist, rapidly induces Kv1.5 gene transcription, but does not affect Kv1.5 mRNA turnover (t1/2 approximately 0.5 hr) in GH3 cells. Immunoblots indicate that the steroid also increases the expression of the 76 kd Kv1.5 protein approximately 3-fold within 12 hr without altering its half-life (t1/2 approximately 4 hr). In contrast, Kv1.4 protein expression is unaffected. Finally, we find that the induction of Kv1.5 protein is associated with an increase in a noninactivating component of the voltage-gated K+ current. Our results indicate that hormones and neurotransmitters may act within hours to regulate excitability by controlling K+ channel gene expression.

Biophysical and pharmacological properties of cloned GABAA receptor subunits expressed in Xenopus oocytes.

Biochemical and immunological studies indicate that the GABAA receptor contains at least two types of subunit. Here we report that coexpression of two GABAA receptor subunit clones (alpha and beta) in Xenopus oocytes yields receptors with many biophysical properties of native GABAA receptors. These include ion selectivity, multiple single-channel conductance states, voltage-dependent gating and rectification, and complex desensitization kinetics. Furthermore, the receptors are competitively inhibited by bicuculline and display the expected allosteric and agonist effects of the barbiturate pentobarbital. The expressed receptors, however, appear to be activated by one molecule of GABA instead of two and fail to show potentiation by benzodiazepines. This implies that an additional factor(s) or subunit(s) is required for the reconstitution of a fully functional GABAA receptor.

Neuronal peptide release is limited by secretory granule mobility.

Neuropeptides are slowly released from a limited pool of secretory granules. To visualize this process, GFP-tagged preproatrial natriuretic factor (ANF) was expressed in nerve growth factor-treated PC12 cells. Biochemical and microfluorimetric experiments demonstrate that proANF-EGFP is packaged in granules that accumulate at neurite endings and is released in a Ca2+-dependent manner by secretagogs. Confocal microscopy shows that secretion is associated with depletion of granules distributed throughout the terminal. Fluorescence recovery after photobleaching and time-lapse particle tracking reveal that only a subpopulation of cytoplasmic secretory granules, similar in size to the releasable pool, can move quickly enough (D = 6 x 10(-11) cm2/s) to support release. Therefore, sustained secretory responses are limited by the number of mobile granules and their slow rate of diffusion.

Apoptotic surface delivery of K+ channels.

Apoptosis in cortical neurons requires efflux of cytoplasmic potassium mediated by a surge in Kv2.1 channel activity. Pharmacological blockade or molecular disruption of these channels in neurons prevents apoptotic cell death, while ectopic expression of Kv2.1 channels promotes apoptosis in non-neuronal cells. Here, we use a cysteine-containing mutant of Kv2.1 and a thiol-reactive covalent inhibitor to demonstrate that the increase in K+ current during apoptosis is due to de novo insertion of functional channels into the plasma membrane. Biotinylation experiments confirmed the delivery of additional Kv2.1 protein to the cell surface following an apoptotic stimulus. Finally, expression of botulinum neurotoxins that cleave syntaxin and synaptosome-associated protein of 25 kDa (SNAP-25) blocked upregulation of surface Kv2.1 channels in cortical neurons, suggesting that target soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptor (SNARE) proteins support proapoptotic delivery of K+ channels. These data indicate that trafficking of Kv2.1 channels to the plasma membrane causes the apoptotic surge in K+ current.

A vital role for voltage-dependent potassium channels in dopamine transporter-mediated 6-hydroxydopamine neurotoxicity.

6-Hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA), a neurotoxic substrate of the dopamine transporter (DAT), is widely used in Parkinson's disease models. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying 6-OHDA's selectivity for dopamine neurons and the injurious sequelae that it triggers are not well understood. We tested whether ectopic expression of DAT induces sensitivity to 6-OHDA in non-dopaminergic rat cortical neurons and evaluated the contribution of voltage-dependent potassium channel (Kv)-dependent apoptosis to the toxicity of this compound in rat cortical and midbrain dopamine neurons. Cortical neurons expressing DAT accumulated dopamine and were highly vulnerable to 6-OHDA. Pharmacological inhibition of DAT completely blocked this toxicity. We also observed a p38-dependent Kv current surge in DAT-expressing cortical neurons exposed to 6-OHDA, and p38 antagonists and Kv channel blockers were neuroprotective in this model. Thus, DAT-mediated uptake of 6-OHDA recruited the oxidant-induced Kv channel dependent cell death pathway present in cortical neurons. Finally, we report that 6-OHDA also increased Kv currents in cultured midbrain dopamine neurons and this toxicity was blocked with Kv channel antagonists. We conclude that native DAT expression accounts for the dopamine neuron specific toxicity of 6-OHDA. Following uptake, 6-OHDA triggers the oxidant-associated Kv channel-dependent cell death pathway that is conserved in non-dopaminergic cortical neurons and midbrain dopamine neurons.

Independent regulation of cardiac Kv4.3 potassium channel expression by angiotensin II and phenylephrine.

Hypertrophied cardiac myocytes exhibit prolonged action potentials and decreased transient outward potassium current (I(to)). Because Kv4.3 is a major contributor to I:(to), we studied regulation of its expression in neonatal rat cardiac myocytes in response to the known stimulators of cardiac myocyte hypertrophy, angiotensin II (Ang II) and phenylephrine (PE). RNase protection assays and immunoblots revealed that Ang II and PE each downregulate Kv4.3 mRNA and protein. However, although PE induces a faster and more extensive hypertrophic response than Ang II, the PE effect on Kv4.3 mRNA develops slowly and is sustained, whereas Ang II rapidly and transiently decreases Kv4.3 mRNA expression. Turnover measurements revealed that Kv4.3 mRNA is very stable, with a half-life >20 hours. This suggests that Ang II must destabilize the channel mRNA. In contrast, PE does not affect the rate of Kv4.3 mRNA degradation. To test for transcriptional regulation, the 5' flanking region of the rat Kv4.3 gene was cloned, and Kv4.3 promoter-reporter constructs were expressed in cardiac myocytes. Whereas Ang II was found to have no effect on transcription, PE inhibits Kv4.3 promoter activity. Pharmacological experiments also indicate that PE and Ang II act independently to downregulate Kv4.3 gene expression. Thus, regulation of Kv4.3 gene expression is not a simple secondary response to hypertrophy. Rather, Ang II and PE use different mechanisms to decrease Kv4.3 channel expression in neonatal rat cardiac myocytes.

Acid prohormone sequence determines size, shape, and docking of secretory vesicles in atrial myocytes.

How vesicles are born in the trans-Golgi network and reach their docking sites at the plasma membrane is still largely unknown and is investigated in the present study on live, primary cultured atrial cardiomyocytes. Secretory vesicles (n=422) are visualized by expressing fusion proteins of proatrial natriuretic peptide (proANP) and green fluorescent protein. Myocytes expressing fusion proteins with intact proANP display two populations of fluorescent vesicles with apparent diameters of 120 and 175 nm, moving at a top velocity of 0.3 microm/s. The number of docked vesicles is significantly correlated with the number of mobile vesicles (r=0.71, P<0.0005). The deletion of the acidic N-terminal proANP[1-44] or point mutations (glu(23,24)-->gln(23,24)) change size and shape-but not velocity-of the vesicles, and, strikingly, abolish their docking at the plasma membrane. The shapes thus change from spheres to larger, irregular floppy bags or vesicle trains. Deletion of the C-terminal proANP[45-127], where the ANP and its disulfide bond reside, does not change size, shape, docking, or velocity of the mobile vesicles. The N-terminal acid calcium-binding sequence of proANP is known to cause protein aggregation at the high calcium concentration prevailing in the trans-Golgi network. Therefore, these results indicate that amino acid residues favoring cargo aggregation are critically important in shaping the secretory vesicles and determining their fate-docking or not docking-at the plasma membrane. The full text of this article is available at http://www.circresaha.org.

Mmip-2, a novel RING finger protein that interacts with mad members of the Myc oncoprotein network.

Mad proteins are basic-helix-loop-helix-leucine zipper (bHLH-ZIP)-containing members of the myc oncoprotein network. They interact with the bHLH-ZIP protein max, compete for the same DNA binding sites as myc-max heterodimers and down-regulate myc-responsive genes. Using the bHLH-ZIP domain of mad1 as a yeast two-hybrid 'bait', we identified Mmip-2, a novel RING finger protein that interacts with all mad members, but weakly or not at all with c-myc, max or unrelated bHLH or bZIP proteins. The mad1-Mmip-2 interaction is mediated by the ZIP domain in the former protein and by at least two regions in the latter which do not include the RING finger. Mmip-2 can disrupt max-mad DNA binding and can reverse the suppressive effects of mad proteins on c-myc-responsive target genes and on c-myc + ras-mediated focus formation in fibroblasts. Tagging with spectral variants of green fluorescent protein showed that Mmip-2 and mad proteins reside in separate cytoplasmic and nuclear compartments, respectively. When co-expressed, however, the proteins interact and translocate to the cellular compartment occupied by the more abundant protein. These observations suggest a novel way by which Mmip-2 can modulate the transcriptional activity of myc oncoproteins.

Dynamic in vivo interactions among Myc network members.

Members of the Myc oncoprotein network (c-Myc, Max, and Mad) play important roles in proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis. We expressed chimeric green fluorescent protein (GFP) fusions of c-Myc, Max, and three Mad proteins in fibroblasts. Individually, c-Myc and Mad proteins localized in subnuclear speckles, whereas Max assumed a homogeneous nuclear pattern. These distributions were co-dominant and dynamic, however, as each protein assumed the pattern of its heterodimeric partner when the latter was co-expressed at a higher level. Deletion mapping of two Mad members, Mad1 and Mxi1, demonstrated that the domains responsible for nuclear localization and speckling are separable. A non-speckling Mxi1 mutant was also less effective as a transcriptional repressor than wild-type Mxi1. c-Myc nuclear speckles were distinct from SC-35 domains involved in mRNA processing. However, in the presence of co-expressed Max, c-Myc, but not Mad, co-localized to a subset of SC-35 loci. These results show that Myc network proteins comprise dynamic subnuclear structures and behave co-dominantly when co-expressed with their normal heterodimerization partners. In addition, c-Myc-Max heterodimers, but not Max-Mad heterodimers, localize to foci actively engaged in pre-mRNA transcription/processing. These findings suggest novel means by which Myc network members promote transcriptional activation or repression.

Multiple protein kinases are required for basal Kv1.5 K+ channel gene expression in GH3 clonal pituitary cells.

The role of protein kinases in maintaining basal expression of voltage-gated K+ channel mRNA was examined in GH3 clonal pituitary cells. Nonspecific inhibition of protein kinases with H7 or staurosporine markedly decreases Kv1.5 K+ channel gene transcription and mRNA without producing a substantial change in Kv1.4 mRNA. Selective inhibitors for protein kinase C, Ca(2+)-calmodulin kinases, and tyrosine kinases do not affect Kv1.5 mRNA expression. In contrast, the Rp-diastereomer of adenosine 3',5'-cyclic monophosphorothioate, a specific inhibitor of protein kinase A, partially inhibits Kv1.5 mRNA expression (approximately 40%), and this effect was antagonized by 8-bromo-adenosine 3',5'-cyclic monophosphate. Thus, protein kinase A and at least one other kinase are required for basal Kv1.5 mRNA expression in pituitary cells.

Bay K 8644 reveals two components of L-type Ca2+ channel current in clonal rat pituitary cells.

Whole-cell L-type Ca2+ channel current was recorded in GH3 clonal rat pituitary cells using Ba2+ as a charge carrier. In the presence of the dihydropyridine agonist Bay K 8644, deactivation was best described by two exponential components with time constants of approximately 2 and approximately 8 ms when recorded at -40 mV. The slow component activated at more negative potentials than the fast component: Half-maximal activation for the slow and fast components occurred at approximately -15 and approximately 1 mV, respectively. The fast component was more sensitive to enhancement by racemic Bay K 8644 than the slow component: ED50fast = approximately 21 nM, ED50slow = approximately 74 nM. Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH; 1 microM) inhibited the slow component by approximately 46%, whereas the fast component was inhibited by approximately 22%. TRH inhibition of total L-current showed some voltage dependence, but each Bay K 8644-revealed component of L-current was inhibited in a voltage-independent manner. Therefore, the apparent voltage dependence of TRH action is derived from complexities in channel gating rather than from relief of inhibition at high voltages. In summary, Bay K 8644-enhanced L-currents in GH3 cells consist of two components with different sensitivities to voltage, racemic Bay K 8644, and the neuropeptide TRH.

L-type Ca2+ channels access multiple open states to produce two components of Bay K 8644-dependent current in GH3 cells.

To determine the number of L-channel populations responsible for producing the two components of whole-cell L-type Ca2+ channel current revealed by Bay K 8644 (Fass, D.M., and E.S. Levitan. 1996. J. Gen. Physiol. 108:1-11), L-type Ca2+ channel activity was recorded in cell-attached patches. Ensemble tail currents from most (six out of nine) single-channel patches had double-exponential time courses, with time constants that were similar to whole-cell tail current decay values. Also, in single-channel patches subjected to two different levels of depolarization, ensemble tail currents exactly reproduced the voltage dependence of activation of the two whole-cell components: The slow component is activated at more negative potentials than the fast component. In addition, deactivation of Bay K 8644-modified whole-cell L-current was slower after long (100-ms) depolarizations than after short (20-ms) depolarizations, and this phenomenon was also evident in ensemble tail currents from single L-channels. Thus, a single population of L-channels can produce the two components of macroscopic L-current deactivation. To determine how individual L-channels produce multiple macroscopic tail current components, we constructed ensemble tail currents from traces that contained a single opening upon repolarization and no reopenings. These ensemble tails were biexponential. This type of analysis also revealed that reopenings do not contribute to the slowing of tail current deactivation after long depolarizations. Thus, individual L-channels must have access to several open states to produce multiple macroscopic current components. We also obtained evidence that access to these open states can vary over time. Use of several open states may give L-channels the flexibility to participate in many cell functions.

Distinct structural requirements for clustering and immobilization of K+ channels by PSD-95.

PDZ-domain-containing proteins such as PSD-95 have been implicated in the targeting and clustering of membrane proteins. Biochemical and immunohistochemical studies indicate that PSD-95 recognizes COOH-terminal S/TXV sequences present in Kv1 K+ channels. However, the effect of binding a PDZ domain on a target protein has not been studied in live cells. In the present study, a green fluorescent protein-Kv1.4 fusion protein is used to study the effect of PSD-95 on channel movement. Fluorescence recovery after photobleaching showed that PSD-95 can immobilize K+ channels in the plasma membrane in an all-or-none manner. Furthermore, time lapse imaging showed that channel clusters formed in the presence of PSD-95 are stable in size, shape, and position. As expected from previous reports, two green fluorescent protein-tagged COOH-terminal variants of Kv1.4, Delta15 and V655A, are not clustered by PSD-95. However, coexpression of PSD-95 with V655A, but not Delta15, leads to the appearance of PSD-95 immunoreactivity in the plasma membrane. Furthermore, fluorescence recovery after photobleaching studies show that V655A channels are immobilized by PSD-95. Thus, V655A channels can interact with PSD-95 in a manner that leads to channel immobilization, but not clustering. These experiments document for the first time that PSD-95 immobilizes target proteins. Additionally, the data presented here demonstrate that the structural requirements for protein clustering and immobilization by PSD-95 are distinct.

Dexamethasone increases potassium channel messenger RNA and activity in clonal pituitary cells.

Glucocorticoid hormones are released as part of the stress response and regulate secretion by the pituitary. Since the activity of ion channels also influences secretion, we examined the effect of the glucocorticoid agonist dexamethasone on ion channel expression. K+ channel mRNA was detected in rat hypothalamus and anterior pituitary, with probes derived from the rat Kv1 gene, a member of the mammalian voltage-gated K+ channel superfamily. High levels were also detected in PRL-secreting clonal (GH3 and GH4C1) rat pituitary cells. Dexamethasone rapidly increased the steady state concentration of Kv1 mRNA in GH3 cells in a dose-dependent manner. This change in gene expression was accompanied by an increase in whole cell voltage-gated K+ current [lk(i)] with similar pharmacology to the Kv1 gene product. Our findings indicate that hormones may act directly on excitable cells to produce long term effects on electrical activity and secretion by regulating K+ channel expression.

Surface expression of Kv1 voltage-gated K+ channels is governed by a C-terminal motif.

The normal rhythmic beating of the heart relies on tight control of expression of voltage-gated ion channels in the plasma membrane of cardiac myocytes. Recently, a conserved motif was identified near the C-terminus of Kv1 voltage-gated K+ channels that is required for efficient processing and surface expression. Furthermore, variations in the motif account for differences among normal channels in localization and the requirement for auxiliary subunits for robust expression. Thus, this motif is a key regulator of cell surface expression of Kv1 family K+ channels.

Dexamethasone and stress upregulate Kv1.5 K+ channel gene expression in rat ventricular myocytes.

Hormones may produce long-term effects on excitability by regulating K+ channel gene expression. Previous studies demonstrated that administration of dexamethasone, a glucocorticoid receptor agonist, to adrenalectomized rats, rapidly induces Kv1.5 K+ channel expression in the ventricle of the hear. Here, RNase protection assays and Northern blots are used to examine the cell type specificity of dexamethasone action and to test whether Kv1.5 gene expression can be regulated by a physiological stimulus. We show that Kv1.5 mRNA expression in the central nervous system is highest in the hypothalamus. However, dexamethasone treatment of adrenalectomized rats fails to affect Kv1.5 mRNA levels in hypothalamus or lung. In contrast, dramatic upregulation of Kv1.5 mRNA is seen in skeletal muscle and pituitary. Increased Kv1.5 message also found in isolated ventricular cardiomyocytes following in vivo treatment with dexamethasone. Finally, it is shown that cold stress of intact rats significantly increases cardiac Kv1.5 mRNA expression. We conclude that dexamethasone induction of Kv1.5 gene is tissue-specific. Furthermore, our results suggest that stress may act via glucocorticoids to increase Kv1.5 gene expression in ventricular cardiomyocytes. Hence, K+ channel gene expression can be influenced by physiological and pharmacological stimuli.

Control of Ca2+ channel current and exocytosis in rat lactotrophs by basally active protein kinase C and calcineurin.

Modulation of voltage-activated Ca2+ channel activity by phosphorylation was studied in metabolically intact voltage-clamped rat lactotrophs. Experiments using Ba2+ as a charge carrier indicated that a phorbol ester protein kinase C activator stimulates high-voltage-activated Ca2+ channel currents, but has no effect on low-voltage-activated currents. Extracellular application of structurally and mechanistically distinct protein kinase C inhibitors (staurosporin, H7, calphostin C, chelerythrine and Ro 31-8220) preferentially inhibited the high-voltage-activated Ba2+ current. This suggests that protein kinase C is required for maintainance of Ca2+ channel activity even in the absence of modulators. Cyclosporin A, an inhibitor of the Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein phosphatase calcineurin, increased the high-voltage-activated Ca2+ channel current, and staurosporin reversed this effect. Thus, dephosphosphorylation by calcineurin may limit basal Ca2+ channel activity. Time-domain monitoring of cellular capacitance changes demonstrated that cyclosporin A and 12-O-tetradecanoyl-phorbol-13-acetate do not affect exocytosis at a hyperpolarized potential, but each enhances depolarization-induced exocytosis. Facilitation of exocytosis by cyclosporin A differed from 12-O-tetradecanoyl-phorbol-13-acetate in that it was biphasic. The delayed facilitation induced by cyclosporin A could be accounted for by stimulation of the voltage-gated Ca2+ current. These results suggest that the high-voltage activated Ca2+ channel current in rat lactotrophs is determined by the opposing basal activities of protein kinase C and calcineurin. Furthermore, it is concluded that the regulation of Ca2+ channels by protein kinase C and calcineurin affects depolarization-induced exocytosis.