Developmental trajectories of child and adolescent emotional problems: associations with early adult alcohol use behaviors.

BACKGROUND: Whether emotional problems during childhood and adolescence are longitudinally associated with adult alcohol use behaviors is unclear. This study examined associations between developmental trajectories of emotional problems and early adult alcohol use behaviors, while considering co-occurring conduct problems, developmental change/timing, sex differences, and potential confounds. METHODS: Participants were from the Twins Early Development Study (analytic N = 19,908 individuals). Emotional and conduct problems were measured by parent reports at child ages 4, 7, and 9 years and via self-reports at ages 9, 11, and 16 years on the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. Alcohol use behaviors (alcohol consumption and alcohol-related problems) were self-reported by the twins on the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test at age 22 years. Piecewise latent growth curve models described nonlinear developmental trajectories of emotional and conduct problems from ages 4 to 16. At age 22, alcohol use was regressed on emotional and conduct problems' intercepts and slopes from piecewise latent growth curve model and sex differences in regression coefficients were tested. Using twin modeling, Cholesky decompositions and direct path models were compared to test whether significant phenotypic associations were best explained by direct phenotypic influences or correlated genetic and environmental influences. RESULTS: Emotional problems had different associations with alcohol-related problems versus alcohol consumption. After accounting for direct influences from conduct problems, emotional problems were not associated with alcohol-related problems, while emotional problems at age 9 were negatively associated with alcohol consumption in males. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, findings did not support emotional problems as prospective risk factors for severe alcohol use above and beyond risks associated with conduct problems. Sex- and age-specific links between emotional problems and alcohol consumption in early adulthood may be worthy of further exploration, particularly as twin analyses improved our confidence that such links may be underpinned by causal mechanisms.

Are you thinking what I'm thinking? Defining what we mean by "polysubstance use."

The rise in drug overdoses and harms associated with the use of more than one substance has led to increased use of the term "polysubstance use" among researchers, clinicians, and public health officials. However, the term retains no consistent definition across contexts. The current authors convened from disciplines including sociology, epidemiology, neuroscience, and addiction psychiatry to propose a recommended definition of polysubstance use. An iterative process considered authors' formal and informal conversations, insights from relevant symposia, talks, and conferences, as well as their own research and clinical experiences to propose the current definition. Three key concepts were identified as necessary to define polysubstance use: (1) substances involved, (2) timing, and (3) intent. Substances involved include clarifying either (1) the number and type of substances used, (2) presence of more than one substance use disorder, or (3) primary and secondary substance use. The concept of timing is recommended to use clear terms such as simultaneous, sequential, and same-day polysubstance use to describe short-term behaviors (e.g., 30-day windows). Finally, the concept of intent refers to clarifying unintentional use or exposure when possible, and greater attention to motivations of polysubstance use. These three components should be clearly defined in research on polysubstance use to improve consistency across disciplines. Consistent definitions of polysubstance use can aid in the synthesis of evidence to better address an overdose crisis that increasingly involves multiple substances.

Age-varying association between discrimination, childhood family support, and substance use disorders among Latin American immigrants in the United States.

OBJECTIVES: The cultural stress theory posits that immigrants experience a constellation of cultural stressors such as discrimination that could exacerbate alcohol- and other substance-related problems. Drawing on cultural stress theory, this study investigated the age-varying association between past-year discrimination and substance use disorders (SUDs) among Latin American immigrants aged 18-60 and whether childhood family support moderated the above association. METHOD: We used data from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions-III (NESARC-III) among adults aged 18-60 who identified as a Latin American immigrant (N = 3,049; 48% female). RESULTS: Time-varying effect models (TVEMs) revealed that experiencing past-year discrimination was associated with greater odds of having a SUD during young and middle adulthood for Latin American immigrants. Furthermore, for immigrants with lower childhood family support, discrimination was associated with SUD risk in young and middle adulthood. CONCLUSION: The present study documents that past-year discrimination was linked to greater SUD risk during young and middle adulthood. Childhood family support may serve as a protective factor in the association between discrimination and risk for SUD among Latin American immigrants. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Affect Variability in Relation to Alcohol Use Frequency, Intensity, and Concurrent Cannabis Use Among College Students during the COVID-19 Pandemic.

Although alcohol use is related to daily affect, findings regarding affect variability-the degree to which individuals exhibit day-to-day fluctuations in affect-and alcohol use have been mixed. The present study assessed whether individuals who use alcohol tend to have higher positive and negative affect variability than individuals who do not, as well as whether higher affect variability is related to more frequent and intense alcohol use among individuals who use alcohol. We also explored whether affect variability differed between individuals who use alcohol and those who concurrently use alcohol and cannabis. College students (N=1909; M=20.1, SD=1.3; 67.7% female; 76.6% white; n=1147 individuals who use alcohol) completed a 21-day protocol between February-December 2021 in which they reported daily affect, number of drinks consumed, and any cannabis use. As hypothesized, individuals who used alcohol had higher positive and negative affect variability than individuals who did not. Among individuals who used alcohol, individuals with higher negative affect variability drank alcohol more frequently, and both higher positive and negative affect variability were related to more intense alcohol use. No differences emerged between individuals who used alcohol and those who concurrently used alcohol and cannabis. Taken together, higher positive and negative affect variability were related to higher odds of using alcohol and more frequent and intense use among individuals who use alcohol, over and above average affect. Higher affect variability could relate to alcohol use because of difficulties with emotion regulation or heightened sensitivity to the environment.

Daily Positive Alcohol Expectancies and Alcohol Use Outcomes among College Students.

Expectancy theory supports alcohol expectancies, or the expected effects of drinking, as an important factor in alcohol use behaviors. Recent research supports that alcohol expectancies fluctuate daily, but scant research has examined specific types of expectancies and their associations with alcohol use at the daily level. Consequently, the present study examined (1) the daily association between select expectancies (i.e., sociability, tension reduction, liquid courage) and likelihood of drinking, and (2) whether daily expectancies predict alcohol use outcomes (i.e., alcohol-related problems, heavy drinking) on drinking days. Participants (N = 221; 79.2% women) were primarily White (48.4%) and Black (29.7%) university students. Participants completed daily measures of expectancies, alcohol use, and alcohol-related problems each day for 14 days. Results from multilevel models revealed daily sociability as the only expectancy subscale linked with increased odds of drinking. Daily expectancies did not predict heavy drinking or alcohol-related problems on drinking days. At the between-person level, average levels of sociability and tension reduction expectancies were associated with a greater likelihood of engaging in heavy drinking and experiencing a problem. Findings highlight that fluctuations in sociability expectancies may be proximally linked to likelihood of alcohol use, which may inform just-in-time intervention efforts targeting alcohol expectancies.

Resilience profiles predict polysubstance use in adolescents with a history of childhood maltreatment.

Background: Childhood maltreatment (CM) can be an impediment to normative development and consistently predicts increased risk for substance misuse and polysubstance use (polySU). Yet, a subset of individuals who experience CM exhibit successful adaptations across the lifespan. Although there is an expansive literature on socioemotional and cognitive protective factors that mitigate impacts of CM, less is known about other, intra-individual resilience-promoting factors (e.g., positive future orientation) known to assuage high-risk SU patterns during adolescence. Method: This study examined heterogeneity in individual-level resilience characteristics in maltreated youth as it related to CM characteristics and SU patterns during adolescence. Participants included maltreated youth from the longitudinal LONGSCAN sample (N=355; 181 females). Latent Profile Analysis was used to identify subgroups of CM-exposed individuals based on 5 resilience indicator variables (i.e., commitment to goals, engaging in demanding activities, self-reliance, positive future orientation, and externalizing behaviors). Tests for differences in SU patterns and CM characteristics between the resultant profiles were performed. Results: Data models revealed 3 latent profiles based on participants' resilience traits (i.e., Low Resilience, Average Resilience, and High Resilience). There were no profile differences on the basis of CM characteristics. Those in the High Resilience profile were less likely to engage in polySU compared to the Average Resilience profile. Implications: These findings highlight the promise of individual-level resilience factors that are not necessarily dependent upon caregiver or environmental inputs as protective against polySU following CM. This work represents a promising avenue for future preventative intervention efforts targeting emergent SU behaviors in high-risk youth.

Stress and Affect as Daily Risk Factors for Substance Use Patterns: an Application of Latent Class Analysis for Daily Diary Data.

At the population level, use of multiple substances (or "co-use") is prevalent in young adulthood and linked with increased risk for experiencing substance-related harms. Less understood is the heterogeneity of substance use behaviors within individuals and across days, as well as the proximal predictors of these daily use patterns. The present study applied latent class analysis to daily diary data to identify daily substance use patterns and compare day-level class membership based on day-level stress and positive and negative affect among a higher-risk sample of young adult substance users. Participants (n = 152) completed up to 13 daily assessments of stress, affect, and substance use behavior. Among substance use days, five classes of days were identified: cannabis (some alcohol; 43% of days), alcohol-only (26%), vaping (some alcohol, cannabis; 24%), stimulant + alcohol (some cannabis, vaping; 4%), and cigarette-only (3%) days. Days with lower levels of perceived stress were significantly more likely to be alcohol-only Days relative to being days characterized by cigarette use, cannabis use, or multiple drug combinations. Days with higher levels of stress and negative affect were more likely to be cigarette-only days relative to cannabis and vaping days. Study findings document the wide range of substance use and co-use behaviors exhibited among young adults in daily life and highlight the importance of considering risk factors that correspond to days of problematic use patterns.

Flexibly modeling age trends in the prevalence of co-occurring patterns of substance use and mental health disorders using time-varying effects and latent class analysis.

Background: Substance use disorders (SUDs) and mental health disorders may change and co-occur in complex patterns across adult ages, but these processes can be difficult to capture with traditional statistical approaches.Objective: To elucidate disorder prevalence and comorbidities across adult ages by using time-varying effect models (TVEMs), latent class analysis (LCA), and modeling latent class prevalences as complex functions of age.Methods: Data were drawn from participants who are 18-65 years old in the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions III (n = 30,999; 51% women) and a subsample who reported a past-year post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), mood, anxiety, or SUD based on DSM-5 diagnoses (n = 11,279). TVEM and LCA were used to examine age trends and comorbidity patterns across ages.Results: SUD prevalence peaked at age 23 (31%) and decreased thereafter, while mental health disorder prevalence was stable (20%-26% across all ages). The prevalence of five classes of individuals based on specific combinations of mental health and SUDs varied by age: the Alcohol Use Disorder class had the highest prevalence at age 26, whereas the Mood and Anxiety Disorder classes peaked around age 63. Interestingly, the Poly-Disorder class prevalence was greatest at age 18 but decreased sharply across young adulthood; however, the prevalence of the other high comorbidity class, PTSD with Mood or Anxiety Disorder, remained fairly constant across age, peaking at age 44.Conclusions: Multimorbid mental health disorders (excluding SUDs) persist in prevalence across adult ages. LCA, TVEM, and their integration together hold substantial potential to advance addiction research.

Using Young Adult Language to Describe the Effects of Simultaneous Alcohol and Marijuana Use: Implications for Assessment.

Introduction: Prevalence of alcohol and marijuana use is highest in young adulthood and an increasing number of young adults report simultaneous alcohol and marijuana (SAM) use, which is consistently linked with numerous negative consequences. To better understand reasons for engaging in SAM use and to refine measurement of subjective effects of SAM use, this study aimed to identify (1) how young adults describe subjective experiences during a SAM use occasion and (2) how language describing subjective effects changes as a function of level of alcohol and marijuana use. Methods: Using Amazon's Mechanical Turk (MTurk), 323 participants (53.6% women, 68.4% White, M age = 23.0 years) who reported past-month heavy episodic drinking and past-month SAM use were asked to list words to describe how they feel when using only alcohol, only marijuana, and various combinations of alcohol and marijuana. Results: SAM use language varied as a function of age and substance use behavior but was not associated with sex or race. Large differences in the terms used to describe subjective effects were observed when comparing different combinations of alcohol and marijuana use; most notably the term "cross-faded" appeared primarily when engaging at the heaviest combinations of alcohol and marijuana. Conclusion: Young adults have a wide range of vocabulary for describing subjective effects of SAM use, and subjective effects vary as a function of the level of each substance used. Future research should consider integrating such contemporary language when measuring subjective effects of SAM use.

Time Perspective and Substance Use: An Examination Across Three Adolescent Samples.

Time perspective is conceptualized as a multidimensional construct that assesses individuals' feelings and thoughts about the past, present, and future. The current study examined relationships between feelings (time attitudes) and thoughts (time orientation) about time and substance use behaviors across three adolescent samples. Participants included a high-risk sample of adjudicated youth (N=124; M age =15.54, SD=1.69; 51.61% female) and two general population school samples (N=777; M age =15.82, SD=1.23; 53.41% female; N=1873; M age =15.87, SD=1.28; 52.22% female). Cross-sectional survey data were collected from samples in schools during 2010, 2016, and 2011, respectively. Poisson and negative binomial regression analyses indicated that overall, more positive feelings about time were associated with fewer substances used and, conversely, more negative feelings about time were associated with more substances used. These findings were particularly salient for participants with stronger positive and negative feelings toward the past and present time periods. Further, across the three samples, adolescents with a balanced time orientation (i.e., equal emphasis on all three time periods) generally reported less substance use than individuals who emphasized only one or two time periods. Findings highlight relationships between time perspective dimensions and substance use across diverse samples and illustrate opportunities for adapting time perspective-based substance use interventions for adolescents.

Age-varying associations between physical activity and psychological outcomes among rural cancer survivors.

We examined the prevalence of psychological outcomes (i.e., symptoms of depression and anxiety) by age and age-varying associations between physical activity and psychological outcomes among rural cancer survivors. Participants (N = 219; ages 22-93) completed sociodemographic, psychological, and physical activity questionnaires. Time-varying effect models estimated the prevalence of psychological outcomes and assessed associations between physical activity and psychological outcomes as a flexible function of age. Depression and anxiety symptoms decreased with age among cancer survivors aged 22-40 years and were relatively stable across age among those > 40 years. Positive associations between vigorous physical activity and psychological outcomes in those aged 22-40 years were identified. In those > 70-80 years, there were negative associations between vigorous physical activity and psychological outcomes. Results suggest there is variation across age in the associations between physical activity and psychological outcomes among rural survivors. Future research should further explore these age-varying relationships to identify important intervention targets.

Age-varying trends in alcohol and cannabis co-occurring use: Implications for prescription drug misuse.

Background: Individuals who engage in alcohol and cannabis co-occurring use are at heightened risk for negative outcomes than individuals who only use alcohol or only use cannabis, but far less is known about implications of alcohol and cannabis co-occurring use for prescription drug misuse (PDM).Objectives: This study aimed to (1) identify whether co-occurring use was linked with greater risk for PDM across ages 18-60 and to determine ages at which this association was strongest, (2) determine whether associations remain after controlling for pain severity, and (3) test for gender differences.Methods: Cross-sectional data were from Wave 1 of the Population Assessment of Tobacco and Health (PATH) study. The analytic sample included 20,120 (50.6%wt men) individuals aged 18-60 reporting past-year alcohol and/or cannabis use.Results: Time-varying effect models indicated that individuals reporting co-occurring use were at increased risk for PDM than individuals reporting single-substance use across all ages, with odds ratios peaking at >3 at age 34. After controlling for pain severity, associations were only slightly weakened. Associations were slightly stronger for men than women from ages 28 to 35.Conclusion: Co-occurring use was linked with heightened risk for PDM compared to individuals who used only one substance; co-occurring use may be important to target for PDM prevention. Identifying factors underlying study associations, beyond pain, and how these factors evolve with age are important avenues for prevention work.

The Prospective Effects of Parents' and Friends' Approval of Drinking on Simultaneous Alcohol and Marijuana Use during College.

Background: Recent reports indicate that simultaneous alcohol and marijuana (SAM) use is a growing health concern among college students. As SAM use consists of both alcohol and marijuana, risk factors associated with either can serve as plausible targets by prevention efforts to reduce SAM use. Objectives: To explore this, the current study investigated the direct and indirect effects of two established risk factors for drinking on SAM use: perceived parental permissiveness toward drinking and friends' approval toward drinking (injunctive norms). Method: Incoming first-year students (N = 470) reported parental permissiveness, injunctive norms, alcohol use, and SAM use at baseline (T1) and 5 months later (T2). SAM use was assessed again 15 months post-baseline (T3). Path analysis was conducted to examine whether T2 variables mediated relationships between T1 variables and T3 SAM use. Results: Results revealed that T2 student alcohol use mediated the effects of T1 parental permissiveness, injunctive norms, and alcohol use on T3 SAM use. Conclusions/Importance: Findings from this study extend research on SAM use by identifying perceived parental permissiveness and injunctive drinking norms as risk factors for SAM use through their effects on alcohol use. Based on these findings, it is plausible that parent-based interventions and interventions targeting peer injunctive norms during the first year of college could be used to effectively prevent or reduce SAM use.

PROFILES OF ALCOHOL AND MARIJUANA USE AMONG SIMULTANEOUS ALCOHOL AND MARIJUANA USERS: INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN DEMOGRAPHICS AND SUBSTANCE USE.

Simultaneous alcohol and marijuana (SAM) use - or use of both substances with overlapping effects - is common among emerging adults and is linked to increased risk for problematic substance use outcomes. The current study identified subgroups of emerging adult SAM users based on their typical alcohol and marijuana use patterns and compared groups on key individual characteristics. Latent profile analysis uncovered four profiles of SAM users (n=522): Light Users (LU; 49.0%), Moderate Drinkers with Frequent Marijuana Use (MDFM; 37.9%), Moderate Drinkers with High Peak Levels (MDHP; 5.4%), and Heavy/Frequent Users (HFU; 7.7%). Group differences by demographic characteristics were found, with LU more likely to be college attendees/graduates than MDFM. Additionally, HFU were more likely to be Greek-affiliated than both LU and MDFM. Groups also differed based on other drug use behavior and preferred route of marijuana administration. Findings demonstrate diversity among SAM users based on typical substance use patterns.

Are Co-users of Alcohol and Marijuana More Willing to Experience Consequences From Drinking? A Longitudinal Examination Among First-Year College Students.

BACKGROUND: Alcohol and marijuana co-users are at heightened vulnerability for experiencing a variety of negative alcohol use outcomes including heavier alcohol use and driving under the influence. The current study explored willingness to experience negative consequences as a potential factor underlying the association between co-user status and negative consequences in an effort to guide future intervention work. From a longitudinal study of first-year college students, we examined willingness to experience consequences at Time 2 as a mediator of co-user status at Time 1 and experience of negative consequences at Time 3. METHODS: First-year college student drinkers (n = 1,914) at a large university completed surveys in the fall and spring of their freshman year and the fall of their sophomore year. RESULTS: Alcohol and marijuana co-users reported higher willingness to experience consequences than alcohol-only users. Willingness to experience consequences partially explained the association between alcohol and marijuana couse and consequences. CONCLUSIONS: The current study was the first to compare co-users of alcohol and marijuana to alcohol-only users on willingness to experience consequences, and examine the role of willingness as a mediator between co-user status and consequences experienced. Co-users were more willing to experience adverse effects from drinking, in turn predicting more consequences. Intervention work targeting consequences may be less effective for co-users; thus, additional work is needed to identify other potential mechanisms for change for this at-risk group.

Dynamic Features of Problematic Drinking: Alcohol Use Disorder Latent Classes Across Ages 18-64.

AIMS: Alcohol use disorders (AUDs) are linked with numerous severe detrimental outcomes. Evidence suggests that there is a typology of individuals with an AUD based on the symptoms they report. Scant research has identified how these groups may vary in prevalence by age, which could highlight aspects of problematic drinking behavior that are particularly salient at different ages. Our study aimed to (a) identify latent classes of drinkers with AUD that differ based on symptoms of AUD and (b) examine prevalences of latent classes by age. SHORT SUMMARY: Our findings advocate for personalized treatment approaches for AUD and highlight the need for carefully considering the role of age in prevention and intervention efforts. METHODS: We used data from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions (NESARC-III). Current drinkers aged 18-64 who met criteria for a past-year AUD were included (n = 5402). RESULTS: Latent class analysis (LCA) based on 11 AUD criteria revealed 5 classes: 'Alcohol-Induced Injury' (25%), 'Highly Problematic, Low Perceived Life Interference' (21%), 'Adverse Effects Only' (34%), 'Difficulty Cutting Back' (13%) and 'Highly Problematic' (7%). Using time-varying effect modeling (TVEM), each class was found to vary in prevalence across age. The Adverse Effects Only and Highly Problematic, Low Perceived Life Interference classes were particularly prevalent among younger adults, and the Difficulty Cutting Back and Alcohol-Induced Injury classes were more prevalent as age increased. CONCLUSIONS: Findings suggest that experience of AUD is not only heterogeneous in nature but also that the prevalence of these subgroups vary across age.

A Daily Diary Study of Drinking and Nondrinking Days in Nonstudent Alcohol Users.

BACKGROUND: Emerging adults with lower educational attainment are at higher long-term risk for problematic drinking and alcohol use disorders. Efforts to gain a more in-depth understanding of the drinking habits of nonstudent emerging adults are critical to reduce disparities and to shed light on targets of intervention for this vulnerable group. OBJECTIVES: The current investigation aimed to: (1) provide a description of the daily drinking habits of nonstudent emerging adult drinkers using a 14-day diary method, and (2) examine nondrinking days by assessing their reasons for not drinking as well as strategies used to avoid drinking. METHODS: Participants were 27 (55.5% women) emerging adult drinkers recruited from the community. RESULTS: On drinking days, multilevel results indicated that heavier alcohol use was positively associated with level of subjective intoxication and alcohol-related problems. Men reported higher alcohol use outcomes than women across all alcohol use indicators. Regarding nonconsumptive days, the most frequently endorsed reasons for not drinking largely reflected an internal motivation, while the least endorsed reasons were related to external constraints. Pertaining to strategies used to avoid drinking, the most frequently endorsed response related to choosing alternative enjoyable activities. Diary compliance with the 14-day protocol was 90.9% for at least one daily survey. Conclusion/Importance: The present investigation represents one of the first to examine drinking behaviors using a daily diary approach with nonstudent emerging adult drinkers. Study findings filled an important gap regarding our understanding of the context of drinking of an at-risk and understudied group of drinkers.

Simultaneous Use of Alcohol and Marijuana: Patterns and Individual Differences.

Background: Simultaneous alcohol and marijuana (SAM) use, or using alcohol and marijuana in such a way that their effects overlap, is associated with negative health and behavioral outcomes. Objectives: Our study sought to fill gaps in our knowledge on this emerging public health concern by comparing SAM users and alcohol-only users on individual-level factors and substance use outcomes as well as examining associations of SAM use frequency, within users. Methods: Participants were recruited through online postings. Our analytic sample consisted of 1017 young adults (18-25 years) who reported past-month alcohol use. Most were male (67.8%), Caucasian (71.5%), and had attended at least some college (74.8%). Results: Past-year SAM users reported higher levels of sensation seeking and greater perceptions of their close friends' drinking behavior in comparison to alcohol-only users. SAM users reported heavier and more frequent alcohol use than alcohol-only users. Within past-year SAM users, 70% reported SAM use at least weekly. More frequent SAM use was associated with all alcohol use outcomes (e.g., weekly quantity, frequency, alcohol-related problems) and marijuana use outcomes (e.g., quantity, frequency, peak use) and higher drinking norms. Conclusions/Importance: It is clear that SAM users are a vulnerable sub-population of young adult drinkers. SAM users are differentiated from alcohol-only users in terms of their personality characteristics and perceptions of peer groups' drinking. SAM users and more frequent users are also at heightened risk for substance use outcomes. Prevention and intervention efforts targeting high-risk drinking may benefit from also assessing whether they simultaneously use alcohol and marijuana.

The Influence of a Brief Alcohol Intervention on Alcohol Use Trajectories in Nonstudent Emerging Adult Drinkers.

Background: This study sought to inform research with noncollege-attending emerging adults, an at-risk, and understudied population, by identifying patterns of response following a brief alcohol intervention. This study was a reanalysis of data from a randomized controlled intervention trial testing a brief, personalized feedback alcohol intervention targeting nonstudent emerging adult drinkers. Objectives: The study aims were to (1) model intervention response by identifying subgroups characterized by changes in heavy drinking (i.e. peak use, number of binges during a typical week, proportion of binge days, peak estimated blood alcohol concentration [eBAC]) following the alcohol intervention, and (2) distinguish subgroups on factors related to intervention response (i.e. perceived norms regarding how much peers drink, alcohol use severity, mental health symptoms, and readiness to change). Methods: Participants were 81 (64.2% men) nonstudent heavy drinkers between ages 18-25 years (average age = 22.04) recruited from the community. Results: Findings revealed two latent subgroups that exhibited differential response to the intervention (i.e. intervention "responders" and "nonresponders"). Further, responders reported higher pre-intervention descriptive normative perceptions and alcohol use severity. Conclusions/Importance: The current investigation contributed to knowledge regarding for whom brief alcohol interventions work in the short term within nonstudent emerging adults and could inform future research to facilitate behavior change in those unresponsive to intervention efforts.

College degree attainment by age of first marijuana use and parental education.

Background: Age of first marijuana use is a key predictor of later educational outcomes, but limited work has identified demographic factors that impact this association across continuous ages of first use. The purpose of this study was threefold: (1) to identify the age-varying prevalence of later college degree attainment as a function of age of first marijuana use; (2) to examine the age-varying association of gender and college degree attainment as a function of age of first use; and (3) to examine the age-varying association of parent education and college degree attainment as a function of age of first use. Methods: Data were from the panel portion of the Monitoring the Future (MTF) study, an ongoing longitudinal study of adolescents and young adults. Those who used marijuana by age 22 were included in analyses. Among these participants (N = 2134), 47.0% were male, 67.5% were white, 53.2% reported having at least one parent with a bachelor's degree or higher, and 44.1% attained a bachelor's degree or higher by age 25/26. Results: Intercept-only and logistic time-varying effect models (TVEMs) modeled prevalences and associations as functions of age of first marijuana use. Prevalence of college degree completion was relatively linear across age of first use; such that college degree attainment increased as age of first use increased. Results indicated that college degree attainment varied across age of first use similarly for men and women. Degree attainment differences existed based on parent education. Parental education and degree attainment were most strongly linked at an age of first use between 16 and 19 years. Conclusions: Findings suggest that age of first marijuana use has an association with academic achievement such that earlier ages of first use are associated with lower academic achievement later in adulthood. Parental education serves as a protective factor against college degree attainment in late adolescence.