Chemical Mimics of Aspartate-Directed Proteases: Predictive and Strictly Specific Hydrolysis of a Globular Protein at Asp-X Sequence Promoted by Polyoxometalate Complexes Rationalized by a Combined Experimental and Theoretical Approach.

Creating efficient and residue-directed artificial proteases is a challenging task due to the extreme inertness of the peptide bond, combined with the difficulty of achieving specific interactions between the catalysts and the protein side chains. Herein we report strictly site-selective hydrolysis of a multi-subunit globular protein, hemoglobin (Hb) from bovine blood, by a range of ZrIV -substituted polyoxometalates (Zr-POMs) in mildly acidic and physiological pH solutions. Among 570 peptide bonds in Hb, selective cleavage was observed at only eleven sites, each occurring at Asp-X peptide bonds located in the positive patches on the protein surface. The molecular origins of the observed Asp-X selectivity were rationalized by means of molecular docking, DFT-based binding, and mechanistic studies on model peptides. The proposed mechanism of hydrolysis involves coordination of the amide oxygen to ZrIV followed by a direct nucleophilic attack of the side chain carboxylate group on the C-terminal amide carbon atom with formation of a cyclic anhydride, which is further hydrolyzed to give the reaction products. The activation energy for the cleavage of the structurally related Glu-X sequence compared to Asp-X was calculated to be higher by 1.4 kcal mol-1 , which corresponds to a difference of about one order of magnitude in the rates of hydrolysis. The higher activation energy is attributed to the higher strain present in the six-membered ring of glutaric anhydride (Glu-X), as compared to the five-membered ring of the succinic anhydride (Asp-X) intermediate. Similarly, the cleavage at X-Asp and X-Glu bonds are predicted to be kinetically less likely as the corresponding activation energies were 6 kcal mol-1 higher, explaining the experimentally observed selectivity. The synergy between the negatively charged polyoxometalate cluster, which binds at positive patches on protein surfaces, and selective activation of Asp-X peptide bonds located in these regions by ZrIV ions, results in a novel class of artificial proteases with aspartate-directed reactivity, which is very rare among naturally occurring proteases.

Superactivity of MOF-808 toward Peptide Bond Hydrolysis.

MOF-808, a Zr(IV)-based metal-organic framework, has been proven to be a very effective heterogeneous catalyst for the hydrolysis of the peptide bond in a wide range of peptides and in hen egg white lysozyme protein. The kinetic experiments with a series of Gly-X dipeptides with varying nature of amino acid side chain have shown that MOF-808 exhibits selectivity depending on the size and chemical nature of the X side chain. Dipeptides with smaller or hydrophilic residues were hydrolyzed faster than those with bulky and hydrophobic residues that lack electron rich functionalities which could engage in favorable intermolecular interactions with the btc linkers. Detailed kinetic studies performed by 1H NMR spectroscopy revealed that the rate of glycylglycine (Gly-Gly) hydrolysis at pD 7.4 and 60 °C was 2.69 × 10-4 s-1 ( t1/2 = 0.72 h), which is more than 4 orders of magnitude faster compared to the uncatalyzed reaction. Importantly, MOF-808 can be recycled several times without significantly compromising the catalytic activity. A detailed quantum-chemical study combined with experimental data allowed to unravel the role of the {Zr6O8} core of MOF-808 in accelerating Gly-Gly hydrolysis. A mechanism for the hydrolysis of Gly-Gly by MOF-808 is proposed in which Gly-Gly binds to two Zr(IV) centers of the {Zr6O8} core via the oxygen atom of the amide group and the N-terminus. The activity of MOF-808 was also demonstrated toward the hydrolysis of hen egg white lysozyme, a protein consisting of 129 amino acids. Selective fragmentation of the protein was observed with 55% yield after 25 h under physiological pH.

Protein-Assisted Formation and Stabilization of Catalytically Active Polyoxometalate Species.

The effect of the protein environment on the formation and stabilization of an elusive catalytically active polyoxometalate (POM) species, K6 [Hf(α2 -P2 W17 O61 )] (1), is reported. In the co-crystal of hen egg-white lysozyme (HEWL) with 1, the catalytically active monomeric species is observed, originating from the dimeric 1:2 POM form, while it is intrinsically unstable under physiological pH conditions. The protein-assisted dissociation of the dimeric POM was rationalized by means of DFT calculations. The dissociation process is unfavorable in bulk water, but becomes favorable in the protein-POM complex due to the low dielectric response at the protein surface. The crystal structure shows that the monomeric form is stabilized by electrostatic and water-mediated hydrogen bonding interactions with the protein. It interacts at three distinct sites, close to the aspartate-containing hydrolysis sites, demonstrating high selectivity towards peptide bonds containing this residue.

Spectroscopic Study of the Interaction between Horse Heart Myoglobin and Zirconium(IV)-Substituted Polyoxometalates as Artificial Proteases.

A recent study [Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2015, 54, 7391-7394] has shown that horse heart myoglobin (HHM) is selectively hydrolyzed by a range of zirconium(IV)-substituted polyoxometalates (POMs) under mild conditions. In this study, the molecular interactions between the Zr-POM catalysts and HHM are investigated by using a range of complementary techniques, including circular dichroism (CD), UV/Vis spectroscopy, tryptophan fluorescence spectroscopy, and 1 H and 31 P NMR spectroscopy. A tryptophan fluorescence quenching study reveals that, among all examined Zr-POMs, the most reactive POM, 2:2 ZrIV -Keggin, exhibits the strongest interaction with HHM. 31 P NMR spectroscopy studies show that this POM dissociates in solution, resulting in the formation of a monomeric 1:1 ZrIV -Keggin structure, which is likely to be a catalytically active species. In the presence of ZrIV -POMs, HHM does not undergo complete denaturation, as evidenced by CD, UV/Vis, tryptophan fluorescence, and 1 H NMR spectroscopy. CD spectroscopy shows a gradual decrease in the α-helical content of HHM upon addition of ZrIV -POMs. The largest effect is observed in the presence of a large ZrIV -Wells-Dawson structure, whereas small ZrIV -Lindqvist POM has the least influence on the decrease in the α-helical content of HHM. In all cases, the Soret band at λ=409 nm is maintained in the presence of all examined Zr-POMs, which indicates that no conformational changes in the protein occur near the heme group.

Molecular Insight from DFT Computations and Kinetic Measurements into the Steric Factors Influencing Peptide Bond Hydrolysis Catalyzed by a Dimeric Zr(IV)-Substituted Keggin Type Polyoxometalate.

Peptide bond hydrolysis of several peptides with a Gly-X sequence (X = Gly, Ala, Val, Leu, Ile, Phe) catalyzed by a dimeric Zr(IV)-substituted Keggin type polyoxometalate (POM), (Et2NH2)8[{α-PW11O39Zr(µ-OH)(H2O)}2]·7H2O (1), was studied by means of kinetic experiments and (1)H NMR spectroscopy. The observed rate of peptide bond hydrolysis was found to decrease with increase of the side chain bulkiness, from 4.44 × 10(-7) s(-1) for Gly-Gly to 0.81 × 10(-7) s(-1) for Gly-Ile. A thorough DFT investigation was performed to elucidate (a) the nature of the hydrolytically active species in solution, (b) the mechanism of peptide bond hydrolysis, and (c) the influence of the aliphatic residues on the rate of hydrolysis. Formation of substrate-catalyst complexes of the dimeric POM 1 was predicted as thermodynamically unlikely. Instead, the substrates prefer to bind to the monomerization product of 1, [α-PW11O39Zr(OH)(H2O)](4-) (2), which is also present in solution. In the hydrolytically active complex two dipeptide ligands are coordinated to the Zr(IV) center of 2. The first ligand is bidentate-bound through its amino nitrogen and amide oxygen atoms, while the second ligand is monodentate-bound through a carboxylic oxygen atom. The mechanism of hydrolysis involves nucleophilic attack by a solvent water molecule on the amide carbon atom of the bidentate-bound ligand. In this process the uncoordinated carboxylic group of the same ligand acts as a general base to abstract a proton from the attacking water molecule. The decrease of the hydrolysis rate with an increase in the side chain bulkiness is mostly due to the increased ligand conformational strain in the rate-limiting transition state, which elevates the reaction activation energy. The conformational strain increases first upon substitution of Hα in Gly-Gly with the aliphatic α substituent and second with the ß branching of the α substituent.

Reactivity of Dimeric Tetrazirconium(IV) Wells-Dawson Polyoxometalate toward Dipeptide Hydrolysis Studied by a Combined Experimental and Density Functional Theory Approach.

Detailed kinetic studies on the hydrolysis of glycylglycine (Gly-Gly) in the presence of the dimeric tetrazirconium(IV)-substituted Wells-Dawson-type polyoxometalate Na14[Zr4(P2W16O59)2(µ3-O)2(OH)2(H2O)4] · 57H2O (1) were performed by a combination of (1)H, (13)C, and (31)P NMR spectroscopies. The catalyst was shown to be stable under a broad range of reaction conditions. The effect of pD on the hydrolysis of Gly-Gly showed a bell-shaped profile with the fastest hydrolysis observed at pD 7.4. The observed rate constant for the hydrolysis of Gly-Gly at pD 7.4 and 60 °C was 4.67 × 10(-7) s(-1), representing a significant acceleration as compared to the uncatalyzed reaction. (13)C NMR data were indicative for coordination of Gly-Gly to 1 via its amide oxygen and amine nitrogen atoms, resulting in a hydrolytically active complex. Importantly, the effective hydrolysis of a series of Gly-X dipeptides with different X side chain amino acids in the presence of 1 was achieved, and the observed rate constant was shown to be dependent on the volume, chemical nature, and charge of the X amino acid side chain. To give a mechanistic explanation of the observed catalytic hydrolysis of Gly-Gly, a detailed quantum-chemical study was performed. The theoretical results confirmed the nature of the experimentally suggested binding mode in the hydrolytically active complex formed between Gly-Gly and 1. To elucidate the role of 1 in the hydrolytic process, both the uncatalyzed and the polyoxometalate-catalyzed reactions were examined. In the rate-determining step of the uncatalyzed Gly-Gly hydrolysis, a carboxylic oxygen atom abstracts a proton from a solvent water molecule and the nascent OH nucleophile attacks the peptide carbon atom. Analogous general-base activity of the free carboxylic group was found to take place also in the case of polyoxometalate-catalyzed hydrolysis as the main catalytic effect originates from the -C═O···Zr(IV) binding.

Highly Amino Acid Selective Hydrolysis of Myoglobin at Aspartate Residues as Promoted by Zirconium(IV)-Substituted Polyoxometalates.

SDS-PAGE/Edman degradation and HPLC MS/MS showed that zirconium(IV)-substituted Lindqvist-, Keggin-, and Wells-Dawson-type polyoxometalates (POMs) selectively hydrolyze the protein myoglobin at Asp-X peptide bonds under mildly acidic and neutral conditions. This transformation is the first example of highly sequence selective protein hydrolysis by POMs, a novel class of protein-hydrolyzing agents. The selectivity is directed by Asp residues located on the surface of the protein and is further assisted by electrostatic interactions between the negatively charged POMs and positively charged surface patches in the vicinity of the cleavage site.

Polyoxometalates as a novel class of artificial proteases: selective hydrolysis of lysozyme under physiological pH and temperature promoted by a cerium(IV) Keggin-type polyoxometalate.

Hen-egg-white lysozyme (HEWL) is specifically cleaved at the Trp28-Val29 and Asn44-Arg45 peptide bonds in the presence of a Keggin-type [Ce(α-PW(11)O(39))(2)](10-) polyoxometalate (POM; 1) at pH 7.4 and 37 °C. The reactivity of 1 towards a range of dipeptides was also examined and the calculated reaction rates were comparable to those observed for the hydrolysis of HEWL. Experiments with α-lactalbumin (α-LA), a protein that is structurally highly homologous to HEWL but has a different surface potential, showed no evidence of hydrolysis, which indicates the importance of electrostatic interactions between 1 and the protein surface for the hydrolytic reaction to occur. A combination of spectroscopic techniques was used to reveal the molecular interactions between HEWL and 1 that lead to hydrolysis. NMR spectroscopy titration experiments showed that on protein addition the intensity of the (31)P NMR signal of 1 gradually decreased due to the formation of a large protein/polyoxometalate complex and completely disappeared when the HEWL/1 ratio reached 1:2. Circular dichroism (CD) measurements of HEWL indicate that addition of 1 results in a clear decrease in the signal at λ=208 nm, which is attributed to changes in the α-helical content of the protein. (15)N-(1)H heteronuclear single quantum coherence (HSQC) NMR measurements of HEWL in the presence of 1 reveal that the interaction is mainly observed for residues that are located in close proximity to the first site in the α-helical part of the structure (Trp28-Val29). The less pronounced NMR spectroscopic shifts around the second cleavage site (Asn44-Arg45), which is found in the ß-strand region of the protein, might be caused by weaker metal-directed binding, compared with strong POM-directed binding at the first site.

A Novel Hypomorphic Apex1 Mouse Model Implicates Apurinic/Apyrimidinic Endonuclease 1 in Oxidative DNA Damage Repair in Gastric Epithelial Cells.

Aims: Though best known for its role in oxidative DNA damage repair, apurinic/apyrimidinic endonuclease 1 (APE1) is a multifunctional protein that regulates multiple host responses during oxidative stress, including the reductive activation of transcription factors. As knockout of the APE1-encoding gene, Apex1, is embryonically lethal, we sought to create a viable model with generalized inhibition of APE1 expression. Results: A hypomorphic (HM) mouse with decreased APE1 expression throughout the body was generated using a construct containing a neomycin resistance (NeoR) cassette knocked into the Apex1 site. Offspring were assessed for APE1 expression, breeding efficiency, and morphology with a focused examination of DNA damage in the stomach. Heterozygotic breeding pairs yielded 50% fewer HM mice than predicted by Mendelian genetics. APE1 expression was reduced up to 90% in the lungs, heart, stomach, and spleen. The HM offspring were typically smaller, and most had a malformed tail. Oxidative DNA damage was increased spontaneously in the stomachs of HM mice. Further, all changes were reversed when the NeoR cassette was removed. Primary gastric epithelial cells from HM mice differentiated more quickly and had more evidence of oxidative DNA damage after stimulation with Helicobacter pylori or a chemical carcinogen than control lines from wildtype mice. Innovation: A HM mouse with decreased APE1 expression throughout the body was generated and extensively characterized. Conclusion: The results suggest that HM mice enable studies of APE1's multiple functions throughout the body. The detailed characterization of the stomach showed that gastric epithelial cells from HM were more susceptible to DNA damage. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 38, 183-197.

A zirconium metal-organic framework with SOC topological net for catalytic peptide bond hydrolysis.

The discovery of nanozymes for selective fragmentation of proteins would boost the emerging areas of modern proteomics, however, the development of efficient and reusable artificial catalysts for peptide bond hydrolysis is challenging. Here we report the catalytic properties of a zirconium metal-organic framework, MIP-201, in promoting peptide bond hydrolysis in a simple dipeptide, as well as in horse-heart myoglobin (Mb) protein that consists of 153 amino acids. We demonstrate that MIP-201 features excellent catalytic activity and selectivity, good tolerance toward reaction conditions covering a wide range of pH values, and importantly, exceptional recycling ability associated with easy regeneration process. Taking into account the catalytic performance of MIP-201 and its other advantages such as 6-connected Zr6 cluster active sites, the green, scalable and cost-effective synthesis, and good chemical and architectural stability, our findings suggest that MIP-201 may be a promising and practical alternative to commercially available catalysts for peptide bond hydrolysis.

N,2,6-Trisubstituted 1H-benzimidazole derivatives as a new scaffold of antimicrobial and anticancer agents: design, synthesis, in vitro evaluation, and in silico studies.

Compounds containing benzimidazole moiety occupy privileged chemical space for discovering new bioactive substances. In continuation of our recent work, 69 benzimidazole derivatives were designed and synthesized with good to excellent yields of 46-99% using efficient synthesis protocol i.e. sodium metabisulfite catalyzed condensation of aromatic aldehydes with o-phenylenediamines to form 2-arylbenzimidazole derivatives followed by N-alkylation by conventional heating or microwave irradiation for diversification. Potent antibacterial compounds against MSSA and MRSA were discovered such as benzimidazole compounds 3k (2-(4-nitrophenyl), N-benzyl), 3l (2-(4-chlorophenyl), N-(4-chlorobenzyl)), 4c (2-(4-chlorophenyl), 6-methyl, N-benzyl), 4g (2-(4-nitrophenyl), 6-methyl, N-benzyl), and 4j (2-(4-nitrophenyl), 6-methyl, N-(4-chlorobenzyl)) with MIC of 4-16 µg mL-1. In addition, compound 4c showed good antimicrobial activities (MIC = 16 µg mL-1) against the bacteria strains Escherichia coli and Streptococcus faecalis. Moreover, compounds 3k, 3l, 4c, 4g, and 4j have been found to kill HepG2, MDA-MB-231, MCF7, RMS, and C26 cancer cells with low µM IC50 (2.39-10.95). These compounds showed comparable drug-like properties as ciprofloxacin, fluconazole, and paclitaxel in computational ADMET profiling. Finally, docking studies were used to assess potential protein targets responsible for their biological activities. Especially, we found that DHFR is a promising target both in silico and in vitro with compound 4c having IC50 of 2.35 µM.

Expanding the reactivity of inorganic clusters towards proteins: the interplay between the redox and hydrolytic activity of Ce(iv)-substituted polyoxometalates as artificial proteases.

The ability of soluble metal-oxo clusters to specifically interact with protein surfaces makes them attractive as potential inorganic drugs and as artificial enzymes. In particular, metal-substituted polyoxometalates (MS-POMs) are remarkably selective in hydrolyzing a range of different proteins. However, the influence of MS-POMs' redox chemistry on their proteolytic activity remains virtually unexplored. Herein we report a highly site-selective hydrolysis of hemoglobin (Hb), a large tetrameric globular protein, by a Ce(iv)-substituted Keggin polyoxometalate (CeIVK), and evaluate the effect of CeIVK's redox chemistry on its reactivity and selectivity as an artificial protease. At pH 5.0, incubation of Hb with CeIVK resulted in strictly selective protein hydrolysis at six Asp-X bonds, two of which were located in the α-chain (α(Asp75-Leu76) and α(Asp94-Pro95)) and five at the ß-chain (ß(Asp51-Ala52), ß(Asp68-Ser69), ß(Asp78-Asp79), ß(Asp98-Pro99) and ß(Asp128-Phe129)). However, increasing the pH of the reaction mixture to 7.4 decreased the CeIVK hydrolytic reactivity towards Hb, resulting in the cleavage of only one peptide bond (ß(Asp128-Phe129)). Combination of UV-Vis, circular dichroism and Trp fluorescence spectroscopy indicated similar interactions between Hb and CeIVK at both pH conditions; however, 31P NMR spectroscopy showed faster reduction of CeIVK into the hydrolytically inactive CeIIIK form in the presence of protein at pH 7.4. In agreement with these results, careful mapping of all hydrolyzed Asp-X bonds on the protein structure revealed that the lower reactivity toward the α-chain was consistent with the presence of more redox-active amino acids (Tyr and His) in this subunit in comparison with the ß-chain. This points towards a link between the presence of the redox-active sites on the protein surface and efficiency and selectivity of redox-active MS-POMs as artificial proteases. More importantly, the study provides a way to tune the redox and hydrolytic reactivity of MS-POMs towards proteins through adjustment of reaction parameters like temperature and pH.

Exploring polyoxometalates as non-destructive staining agents for contrast-enhanced microfocus computed tomography of biological tissues.

To advance clinical translation of regenerative medicine, there is, amongst others, still need for better insights in tissue development and disease. For this purpose, more precise imaging of the 3D microstructure and spatial interrelationships of the different tissues within organs is crucial. Despite being destructive towards the sample, conventional histology still is the gold standard for structural analysis of biological tissues. It is, however, limited by 2D sections of a 3D object, prohibiting full 3D structural analysis. MicroCT has proven to provide full 3D structural information of mineralized tissues and dense biomaterials. However, the intrinsic low X-ray absorption of soft tissues requires contrast-enhancing staining agents (CESAs). In a previous study, we showed that hafnium-substituted Wells-Dawson polyoxometalate (Hf-WD POM) allows simultaneous contrast-enhanced microCT (CE-CT) visualization of bone and its marrow vascularization and adiposity. In this study, other POM species have been examined for their potential as soft tissue CESAs. Four Wells-Dawson POMs, differing in structure and overall charge, were used to stain murine long bones and kidneys. Their staining potential and diffusion rate were compared to those of Hf-WD POM and phosphotungstic acid (PTA), a frequently used but destructive CESA. Monolacunary Wells-Dawson POM (Mono-WD POM) showed similar soft tissue enhancement as Hf-WD POM and PTA. Moreover, Mono-WD POM is less destructive, shows a better diffusion than PTA, and its synthesis requires less time and cost than Hf-WD POM. Finally, the solubility of Mono-WD POM was improved by addition of lithium chloride (LiCl) to the staining solution, enhancing further the soft tissue contrast. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: To advance clinical translation of regenerative medicine, there is, amongst others, still need for better insights in tissue development and disease. For this purpose, more precise imaging of the 3D microstructure and spatial interrelationships of the different tissues within organs is crucial. Current standard structural analysis techniques (e.g. 2D histomorphometry), however, do not allow full 3D assessment. Contrast-enhanced X-ray computed tomography has emerged as a powerful 3D structural characterization tool of soft biological tissues. In this study, from a library of Wells Dawson polyoxometalates (WD POMs), we identified monolacunary WD POM together with lithium chloride, dissolved in phosphate buffered saline, as the most suitable contrast-enhancing staining agent solution for different biological tissues without tissue shrinkage.

Determinants of Risk Factors for Renal Impairment among HIV-Infected Patients Treated with Tenofovir Disoproxil Fumarate-Based Antiretroviral Regimen in Southern Vietnam.

BACKGROUND: The situation of renal impairment among HIV-infected patients treated with TDF-based antiretroviral (ARV) regimen greater than 3 years is little known when TDF use has been promptly increasing in Vietnam. METHODS: We analyse demographic and clinical data from a cross-sectional survey of 400 HIV-infected patients aged ≥18 years, who were treatment-naive or switched TDF regimen within over 3 years between November 2018 and March 2019. Serological tests for serum creatinine, ALT, and AST were performed. Renal impairment was defined as an estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) <60 mL/min/1.73 m2. Multivariate regression analyses were used to explore the risk factors associated with renal impairment. RESULTS: At the baseline, 7.8% of respondents had estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) of 30-59 mL/min/1.73 m2 and 0.8% had eGFR of 15-29 mL/min/1.73 m2, out of 34 (8.5%) of participants who had renal impairment. Multivariate analysis showed that participants who had preexposure to isoniazid (adjusted PR [aPR] = 0.35 Cl: 0.14-0.91) compared with nonexposure to isoniazid who had a BMI from 18.5 up to 25 kg/m2 (aPR = 0.31 Cl: 0.15-0.62) compared with BMI below 18.5 kg/m2 were less likely to suffer from renal impairment. Patients aged greater than 60 years (aPR = 26.75, 95% Cl: 3.38-211.62) compared with those aged 20-29 years were more likely to have increased risk of renal impairment. CONCLUSION: Our findings underscore the need for longitudinal studies to assess the influence of TDF on maintaining the low prevalence of renal impairment among HIV-infected patients in Vietnam.

Amide bond hydrolysis in peptides and cyclic peptides catalyzed by a dimeric Zr(IV)-substituted Keggin type polyoxometalate.

Detailed kinetic studies on the hydrolysis of glycylserine (Gly-Ser) and glycylglycine (Gly-Gly) in the presence of the dimeric zirconium(IV)-substituted Keggin type polyoxometalate (Et2NH2)8[{α-PW11O39Zr(µ-OH)(H2O)}2]·7H2O (1) were performed by a combination of (1)H, (13)C and (31)P NMR spectroscopy. The observed rate constants for the hydrolysis of Gly-Ser and Gly-Gly at pD 5.4 and 60 °C were 63.3 × 10(-7) s(-1) and 4.44 × 10(-7) s(-1) respectively, representing a significant acceleration as compared to the uncatalyzed reactions. The pD dependence of the rate constant for both reactions exhibited a bell-shaped profile with the fastest hydrolysis observed in the pD range of 5.5-6.0. Interaction of 1 with Gly-Ser and Gly-Gly via their amine nitrogen and amide oxygen was proven by (13)C NMR spectroscopy. The effective hydrolysis of Gly-Ser in the presence of 1 is most likely a combination of the polarization of the amide oxygen due to its binding to the Zr(IV) ion in 1 and the intramolecular attack of the Ser hydroxyl group on the amide carbonyl carbon. The effect of temperature, inhibitors, and ionic strength on the hydrolysis rate constant was also examined. The solution structure of 1 was investigated by means of (31)P NMR spectroscopy, revealing that its stability is highly dependent on pH, concentration and temperature. A 2.0 mM solution of 1 was found to be fully stable under hydrolytic conditions (pD 5.4 and 60 °C) both in the presence and in the absence of the dipeptides.

Surface-enhanced vibrational spectroscopy for probing transient interactions of proteins with biomimetic interfaces: electric field effects on structure, dynamics and function of cytochrome c.

Most of the biochemical and biophysical processes of proteins take place at membranes, and are thus under the influence of strong local electric fields, which are likely to affect the structure as well as the reaction mechanism and dynamics. To analyse such electric field effects, biomimetic interfaces may be employed that consist of membrane models deposited on nanostructured metal electrodes. For such devices, surface-enhanced resonance Raman and IR absorption spectroscopy are powerful techniques to disentangle the complex interfacial processes of proteins in terms of rotational diffusion, electron transfer, and protein and cofactor structural changes. The present article reviews the results obtained for the haem protein cytochrome c, which is widely used as a model protein for studying the various reaction steps of interfacial redox processes in general. In addition, it is shown that electric field effects may be functional for the natural redox processes of cytochrome c in the respiratory chain, as well as for the switch from the redox to the peroxidase function, one of the key events preceding apoptosis.