Consensus statement on concussion in sport: the 6th International Conference on Concussion in Sport-Amsterdam, October 2022.

For over two decades, the Concussion in Sport Group has held meetings and developed five international statements on concussion in sport. This 6th statement summarises the processes and outcomes of the 6th International Conference on Concussion in Sport held in Amsterdam on 27-30 October 2022 and should be read in conjunction with the (1) methodology paper that outlines the consensus process in detail and (2) 10 systematic reviews that informed the conference outcomes. Over 3½ years, author groups conducted systematic reviews of predetermined priority topics relevant to concussion in sport. The format of the conference, expert panel meetings and workshops to revise or develop new clinical assessment tools, as described in the methodology paper, evolved from previous consensus meetings with several new components. Apart from this consensus statement, the conference process yielded revised tools including the Concussion Recognition Tool-6 (CRT6) and Sport Concussion Assessment Tool-6 (SCAT6, Child SCAT6), as well as a new tool, the Sport Concussion Office Assessment Tool-6 (SCOAT6, Child SCOAT6). This consensus process also integrated new features including a focus on the para athlete, the athlete's perspective, concussion-specific medical ethics and matters related to both athlete retirement and the potential long-term effects of SRC, including neurodegenerative disease. This statement summarises evidence-informed principles of concussion prevention, assessment and management, and emphasises those areas requiring more research.

Association Between TBI-Related Hearing Impairment and Cognition: A TRACK-TBI Study.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the association between hearing impairment and cognitive function after traumatic brain injury (TBI). SETTING: A total of 18 level I trauma centers throughout the United States in the T ransforming R esearch a nd C linical K nowledge in TBI (TRACK-TBI) study. PARTICIPANTS: From February 2014 to June 2018, a total of 2697 participants with TBI were enrolled in TRACK-TBI. Key eligibility criteria included external force trauma to the head, presentation to a participating level I trauma center, and receipt of a clinically indicated head computed tomographic (CT) scan within 24 hours of injury. A total of 1267 participants were evaluated in the study, with 216 participants with hearing impairment and 1051 participants without hearing impairment. Those with missing or unknown hearing status or cognitive assessment were excluded from analysis. DESIGN: Prospective, observational cohort study. MAIN MEASURES: Hearing impairment at 2 weeks post-TBI was based on self-report. Participants who indicated worse hearing in one or both ears were defined as having hearing impairment, whereas those who denied worse hearing in either ear were defined as not having hearing impairment and served as the reference group. Cognitive outcomes at 6 months post-TBI included executive functioning and processing speed, as measured by the Trail Making Test (TMT) B/A and the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, Fourth Edition, Processing Speed Index subscale (WAIS-IV PSI), respectively. RESULTS: TBI-related hearing impairment had a small but significantly greater TMT B/A ratio than without TBI-related hearing impairment: mean difference ( B ) = 0.25; 95% CI, 0.07 to 0.43; P = .005. No significant mean differences on WAIS-IV PSI scores were found between participants with and without TBI-related hearing impairment: B = 0.36; 95% CI, -2.07 to 2.60; P = .825. CONCLUSION: We conclude that TBI-related hearing impairment at 6 months postinjury was significantly associated with worse executive functioning but not cognitive processing speed.

The diagnostic values of UCH-L1 in traumatic brain injury: A meta-analysis.

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a major health concern. The purpose of this study is to identify the diagnostic accuracy of ubiquitin C-terminal hydrolase-L1 (UCH-L1)-a protein biomarker-in comparison with CT-scan findings post-TBI. Accordingly, we conducted a systematic review of eligible studies and assessed the risk of bias according to the QUADAS-2 checklist. A total of 13 reports from 10 original studies were included. Based on our analysis, serum UCH-L1 has a high accuracy in predicting CT findings in mild to moderate TBI. Based on the QUADAS-2 checklist, this result has a high risk of bias affecting its applicability. The plasma level of UCH-L1 has moderate accuracy in predicting CT findings when assessed in all GCS levels. This result has a low risk of bias and low concerns regarding applicability. Pooled analysis suggests that the plasma/serum UCH-L1 level has high accuracy in predicting CT findings in a wide range of GCS in patients with TBI. This result has a high risk of bias and high concern about its applicability. The heterogeneity in approaching TBI biomarker interferes with drawing a definitive conclusion. Therefore, although UCH-L1 is a promising blood-based diagnostic biomarker for TBI, but due to differences in reported diagnostic accuracy, further studies are needed to recommend UCH-L1 as an alternative to CT scanning.

Military-related risk factors for dementia.

INTRODUCTION: In recent years, there has been growing discussion to better understand the pathophysiological mechanisms of traumatic brain injury and post-traumatic stress disorder and how they may be linked to an increased risk of neurodegenerative diseases including Alzheimer's disease in veterans. METHODS: Building on that discussion, and subsequent to a special issue of Alzheimer's & Dementia published in June 2014, which focused on military risk factors, the Alzheimer's Association convened a continued discussion of the scientific community on December 1, 2016. RESULTS: During this meeting, participants presented and evaluated progress made since 2012 and identified outstanding knowledge gaps regarding factors that may impact veterans' risk for later life dementia. DISCUSSION: The following is a summary of the invited presentations and moderated discussions of both the review of scientific understanding and identification of gaps to inform further investigations.

Prehospital Intubation is Associated with Favorable Outcomes and Lower Mortality in ProTECT III.

OBJECTIVE: Traumatic brain injury (TBI) causes more than 2.5 million emergency department visits, hospitalizations, or deaths annually. Prehospital endotracheal intubation has been associated with poor outcomes in patients with TBI in several retrospective observational studies. We evaluated the relationship between prehospital intubation, functional outcomes, and mortality using high quality data on clinical practice collected prospectively during a randomized multicenter clinical trial. METHODS: ProTECT III was a multicenter randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of early administration of progesterone in 882 patients with acute moderate to severe nonpenetrating TBI. Patients were excluded if they had an index GCS of 3 and nonreactive pupils, those with withdrawal of life support on arrival, and if they had documented prolonged hypotension and/or hypoxia. Prehospital intubation was performed as per local clinical protocol in each participating EMS system. Models for favorable outcome and mortality included prehospital intubation, method of transport, index GCS, age, race, and ethnicity as independent variables. Significance was set at α = 0.05. Favorable outcome was defined by a stratified dichotomy of the GOS-E scores in which the definition of favorable outcome depended on the severity of the initial injury. RESULTS: Favorable outcome was more frequent in the 349 subjects with prehospital intubation (57.3%) than in the other 533 patients (46.0%, p = 0.003). Mortality was also lower in the prehospital intubation group (13.8% v. 19.5%, p = 0.03). Logistic regression analysis of prehospital intubation and mortality, adjusted for index GCS, showed that odds of dying for those with prehospital intubation were 47% lower than for those that were not intubated (OR = 0.53, 95% CI = 0.36-0.78). 279 patients with prehospital intubation were transported by air. Modeling transport method and mortality, adjusted for index GCS, showed increased odds of dying in those transported by ground compared to those transported by air (OR = 2.10, 95% CI = 1.40-3.15). Decreased odds of dying trended among those with prehospital intubation adjusted for transport method, index GCS score at randomization, age, and race/ethnicity (OR = 0.70, 95% CI = 0.37-1.31). CONCLUSIONS: In this study that excluded moribund patients, prehospital intubation was performed primarily in patients transported by air. Prehospital intubation and air medical transport together were associated with favorable outcomes and lower mortality. Prehospital intubation was not associated with increased morbidity or mortality regardless of transport method or severity of injury.

Role of advanced neuroimaging, fluid biomarkers and genetic testing in the assessment of sport-related concussion: a systematic review.

OBJECTIVE: To conduct a systematic review of published literature on advanced neuroimaging, fluid biomarkers and genetic testing in the assessment of sport-related concussion (SRC). DATA SOURCES: Computerised searches of Medline, PubMed, Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL), PsycINFO, Scopus and Cochrane Library from 1 January 2000 to 31 December 2016 were done. There were 3222 articles identified. STUDY SELECTION: In addition to medical subject heading terms, a study was included if (1) published in English, (2) represented original research, (3) involved human research, (4) pertained to SRC and (5) involved data from neuroimaging, fluid biomarkers or genetic testing collected within 6 months of injury. Ninety-eight studies qualified for review (76 neuroimaging, 16 biomarkers and 6 genetic testing). DATA EXTRACTION: Separate reviews were conducted for neuroimaging, biomarkers and genetic testing. A standardised data extraction tool was used to document study design, population, tests employed and key findings. Reviewers used a modified quality assessment of studies of diagnostic accuracy studies (QUADAS-2) tool to rate the risk of bias, and a modified Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation (GRADE) system to rate the overall level of evidence for each search. DATA SYNTHESIS: Results from the three respective reviews are compiled in separate tables and an interpretive summary of the findings is provided. CONCLUSIONS: Advanced neuroimaging, fluid biomarkers and genetic testing are important research tools, but require further validation to determine their ultimate clinical utility in the evaluation of SRC. Future research efforts should address current gaps that limit clinical translation. Ultimately, research on neurobiological and genetic aspects of SRC is predicted to have major translational significance to evidence-based approaches to clinical management of SRC, much like applied clinical research has had over the past 20 years.

A systematic review of potential long-term effects of sport-related concussion.

OBJECTIVE: Systematic review of possible long-term effects of sports-related concussion in retired athletes. DATA SOURCES: Ten electronic databases. STUDY SELECTION: Original research; incidence, risk factors or causation related to long-term mental health or neurological problems; individuals who have suffered a concussion; retired athletes as the subjects and possible long-term sequelae defined as >10 years after the injury. DATA EXTRACTION: Study population, exposure/outcome measures, clinical data, neurological examination findings, cognitive assessment, neuroimaging findings and neuropathology results. Risk of bias and level of evidence were evaluated by two authors. RESULTS: Following review of 3819 studies, 47 met inclusion criteria. Some former athletes have depression and cognitive deficits later in life, and there is an association between these deficits and multiple prior concussions. Former athletes are not at increased risk for death by suicide (two studies). Former high school American football players do not appear to be at increased risk for later life neurodegenerative diseases (two studies). Some retired professional American football players may be at increased risk for diminishment in cognitive functioning or mild cognitive impairment (several studies), and neurodegenerative diseases (one study). Neuroimaging studies show modest evidence of macrostructural, microstructural, functional and neurochemical changes in some athletes. CONCLUSION: Multiple concussions appear to be a risk factor for cognitive impairment and mental health problems in some individuals. More research is needed to better understand the prevalence of chronic traumatic encephalopathy and other neurological conditions and diseases, and the extent to which they are related to concussions and/or repetitive neurotrauma sustained in sports.

Exploring Synaptic Pathways in Traumatic Brain Injury: A Cross-Phenotype Genomics Approach.

Traumatic brain injury (TBI), a global leading cause of mortality and disability, lacks effective treatments to enhance recovery. Synaptic remodeling has been postulated as one mechanism that influences outcomes after TBI. We sought to investigate whether common mechanisms affecting synapse maintenance are shared between TBI and other neuropsychiatric conditions using pathway enrichment tools and genome-wide genotype data, with the goal of highlighting novel treatment targets. We leveraged an integrative approach, combining data from genome-wide association studies with pathway and gene-set enrichment analyses. Literature review-based and Reactome database-driven approaches were combined to identify synapse-related pathways of interest in TBI outcome and to assess for shared associations with conditions in which synapse-related pathobiological mechanisms have been implicated, including Alzheimer's disease, schizophrenia (SCZ), major depressive disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, and autism spectrum disorder. Gene and pathway-level enrichment analyses were conducted using MAGMA and its extensions, e- and H-MAGMA, followed by Mendelian randomization to investigate potential causal associations. Of the 98 pathways tested, 32 were significantly enriched in the included conditions. In TBI outcome, we identified significant enrichment in five pathways: "Serotonin clearance from the synaptic cleft" (p = 0.0001), "Presynaptic nicotinic acetylcholine receptors" (p = 0.0003), "Postsynaptic nicotinic acetylcholine receptors" (p = 0.0003), "Highly sodium permeable postsynaptic acetylcholine nicotinic receptors" (p = 0.0001), and "Acetylcholine binding and downstream events" pathways (p = 0.0003). These associations highlight potential involvement of the cholinergic and serotonergic systems in post-TBI recovery. Three of those pathways were shared between TBI and SCZ, suggesting possible pathophysiologic commonalities. In this study, we utilize comparative and integrative genomic approaches across brain conditions that share synaptic mechanisms to explore the pathophysiology of TBI outcomes. Our results implicate associations between TBI outcome and synaptic pathways as well as pathobiological overlap with other neuropsychiatric diseases.

Prognostic humility and ethical dilemmas after severe brain injury: Summary, recommendations, and qualitative analysis of Curing Coma Campaign virtual event proceedings.

Background: Patients with severe acute brain injuries (SABI) are at risk of living with long-term disability, frequent medical complications and high rates of mortality. Determining an individual patient's prognosis and conveying this to family members/caregivers can be challenging. We conducted a webinar with experts in neurosurgery, neurocritical care, neuro-palliative care, neuro-ethics, and rehabilitation as part of the Curing Coma Campaign, which is supported by the Neurocritical Care Society. The webinar discussed topics focused on prognostic uncertainty, communicating prognosis to family members/caregivers, gaps within healthcare systems, and research infrastructure as it relates to patients experiencing SABI. The purpose of this manuscript is to describe the themes that emerged from this virtual discussion. Methods: A qualitative analysis of a webinar "Prognostic Humility and Ethical Dilemmas in Acute Brain Injury" was organized as part of the Neurocritical Care Society's Curing Coma Campaign. A multidisciplinary group of experts was invited as speakers and moderators of the webinar. The content of the webinar was transcribed verbatim. Two qualitative researchers (NK and BM) read and re-read the transcription, and familiarized themselves with the text. The two coders developed and agreed on a code book, independently coded the transcript, and discussed any discrepancies. The transcript was analyzed using inductive thematic analysis of codes and themes that emerged within the expert discussion. Results: We coded 168 qualitative excerpts within the transcript. Two main themes were discussed: (1) the concept of prognostic uncertainty in the acute setting, and (2) lack of access to and evidence for quality rehabilitation and specialized continuum of care efforts specific to coma research. Within these two main themes, we found 5 sub-themes, which were broken down into 23 unique codes. The most frequently described code was the need for clinicians to acknowledge our own uncertainties when we discuss prognosis with families, which was mentioned 13 times during the webinar. Several strategies were described for speaking with surrogates of patients who have had a severe brain injury resulting in SABI. We also identified important gaps in the United States health system and in research to improve the care of patients with severe brain injuries. Conclusion: As a result of this webinar and expert discussion, authors identified and analyzed themes related to prognostic uncertainty with SABI. Recommendations were outlined for clinicians who engage with surrogates of patients with SABI to foster informed decisions for their loved one. Finally, recommendations for changes in healthcare systems and research support are provided in order to continue to propel SABI science forward to improve future prognostic certainty.

Symptom Frequency and Persistence in the First Year after Traumatic Brain Injury: A TRACK-TBI Study.

Symptom endorsement after traumatic brain injury (TBI) is common acutely post-injury and is associated with other adverse outcomes. Prevalence of persistent symptoms has been debated, especially in mild TBI (mTBI). A cohort of participants ≥17 years with TBI (n = 2039), 257 orthopedic trauma controls (OTCs), and 300 friend controls (FCs) were enrolled in the TRACK-TBI study and evaluated at 2 weeks and 3, 6, and 12 months post-injury using the Rivermead Post-Concussion Symptoms Questionnaire (RPQ). TBI participants had significantly higher symptom burden than OTCs or FCs at all times, with average scores more than double. TBI cases showed significant decreases in RPQ score between each evaluation (p < 0.001), decreasing ∼1.7 points per month between 2 weeks and 3 months and 0.2 points per month after that. More than 50% of the TBI sample, including >50% of each of the mild and moderate/severe TBI subsamples, continued to endorse three or more symptoms as worse than pre-injury through 12 months post-injury. A majority of TBI participants who endorsed a symptom at 3 months or later did so at the next evaluation as well. Contrary to reviews that report symptom resolution by 3 months post-injury among those with mTBI, this study of participants treated at level 1 trauma centers and having a computed tomography ordered found that persistent symptoms are common to at least a year after TBI. Additionally, although symptom endorsement was not specific to TBI given that they were also reported by OTC and FC participants, TBI participants endorsed over twice the symptom burden compared with the other groups.

Risk Factors for High Symptom Burden Three Months after Traumatic Brain Injury and Implications for Clinical Trial Design: A Transforming Research and Clinical Knowledge in Traumatic Brain Injury Study.

More than 75% of patients presenting to level I trauma centers in the United States with suspicion of TBI sufficient to require a clinical computed tomography scan report injury-related symptoms 3 months later. There are currently no approved treatments, and few clinical trials have evaluated possible treatments. Efficient trials will require subject inclusion and exclusion criteria that balance cost-effective recruitment with enrolling individuals with a higher chance of benefiting from the interventions. Using data from the Transforming Research and Clinical Knowledge in Traumatic Brain Injury (TRACK-TBI) study, we examined the relationship of 3-month symptoms to pre-injury, demographic, and acute characteristics as well as 2-week symptoms and blood-based biomarkers to identify and evaluate factors that may be used for sample enrichment for clinical trials. Many of the risk factors for TBI symptoms reported in the literature were supported, but the effect sizes of each were small or moderate (< 0.5). The only factors with large effect sizes when predicting 3-month symptom burden were TBI-related (i.e., post-concussive) and post-traumatic stress symptom levels at 2 weeks (respective effect sizes 1.13 and 1.34). TBI severity was not significantly associated with 3-month symptom burden (p = 0.37). Using simulated data to evaluate the effect of enrichment, we showed that including only people with high symptom burden at 2 weeks would permit trials to reduce the sample size by half, with minimal increase in screening, as compared with enrolling an unenriched sample. Clinical trials aimed at reducing symptoms after TBI can be efficiently conducted by enriching the included sample with people reporting a high early symptom burden.

A genome-wide association study of outcome from traumatic brain injury.

BACKGROUND: Factors such as age, pre-injury health, and injury severity, account for less than 35% of outcome variability in traumatic brain injury (TBI). While some residual outcome variability may be attributable to genetic factors, published candidate gene association studies have often been underpowered and subject to publication bias. METHODS: We performed the first genome- and transcriptome-wide association studies (GWAS, TWAS) of genetic effects on outcome in TBI. The study population consisted of 5268 patients from prospective European and US studies, who attended hospital within 24 h of TBI, and satisfied local protocols for computed tomography. FINDINGS: The estimated heritability of TBI outcome was 0·26. GWAS revealed no genetic variants with genome-wide significance (p < 5 × 10-8), but identified 83 variants in 13 independent loci which met a lower pre-specified sub-genomic statistical threshold (p < 10-5). Similarly, none of the genes tested in TWAS met tissue-wide significance. An exploratory analysis of 75 published candidate variants associated with 28 genes revealed one replicable variant (rs1800450 in the MBL2 gene) which retained significance after correction for multiple comparison (p = 5·24 × 10-4). INTERPRETATION: While multiple novel loci reached less stringent thresholds, none achieved genome-wide significance. The overall heritability estimate, however, is consistent with the hypothesis that common genetic variation substantially contributes to inter-individual variability in TBI outcome. The meta-analytic approach to the GWAS and the availability of summary data allows for a continuous extension with additional cohorts as data becomes available. FUNDING: A full list of funding bodies that contributed to this study can be found in the Acknowledgements section.

FAIR Data Reuse in Traumatic Brain Injury: Exploring Inflammation and Age as Moderators of Recovery in the TRACK-TBI Pilot.

The guiding principle for data stewardship dictates that data be FAIR: findable, accessible, interoperable, and reusable. Data reuse allows researchers to probe data that may have been originally collected for other scientific purposes in order to gain novel insights. The current study reuses the Transforming Research and Clinical Knowledge for Traumatic Brain Injury (TRACK-TBI) Pilot dataset to build upon prior findings and ask new scientific questions. Specifically, we have previously used a multivariate analytics approach to multianalyte serum protein data from the TRACK-TBI Pilot dataset to show that an inflammatory ensemble of biomarkers can predict functional outcome at 3 and 6 months post-TBI. We and others have shown that there are quantitative and qualitative changes in inflammation that come with age, but little is known about how this interaction affects recovery from TBI. Here we replicate the prior proteomics findings with improved missing value analyses and non-linear principal component analysis and then expand upon this work to determine whether age moderates the effect of inflammation on recovery. We show that increased age correlates with worse functional recovery on the Glasgow Outcome Scale-Extended (GOS-E) as well as increased inflammatory signature. We then explore the interaction between age and inflammation on recovery, which suggests that inflammation has a more detrimental effect on recovery for older TBI patients.

Sport-Related Structural Brain Injury and Return to Play: Systematic Review and Expert Insight.

BACKGROUND: Sport-related structural brain injury (SRSBI) is intracranial pathology incurred during sport. Management mirrors that of non-sport-related brain injury. An empirical vacuum exists regarding return to play (RTP) following SRSBI. OBJECTIVE: To provide key insight for operative management and RTP following SRSBI using a (1) focused systematic review and (2) survey of expert opinions. METHODS: A systematic literature review of SRSBI from 2012 to present in accordance with Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines and a cross-sectional survey of RTP in SRSBI by 31 international neurosurgeons was conducted. RESULTS: Of 27 included articles out of 241 systematically reviewed, 9 (33.0%) case reports provided RTP information for 12 athletes. To assess expert opinion, 31 of 32 neurosurgeons (96.9%) provided survey responses. For acute, asymptomatic SRSBI, 12 (38.7%) would not operate. Of the 19 (61.3%) who would operate, midline shift (63.2%) and hemorrhage size > 10 mm (52.6%) were the most common indications. Following SRSBI with resolved hemorrhage, with or without burr holes, the majority of experts (>75%) allowed RTP to high-contact/collision sports at 6 to 12 mo. Approximately 80% of experts did not endorse RTP to high-contact/collision sports for athletes with persistent hemorrhage. Following craniotomy for SRSBI, 40% to 50% of experts considered RTP at 6 to 12 mo. Linear regression revealed that experts allowed earlier RTP at higher levels of play (ß = -0.58, 95% CI -0.111, -0.005, P = .033). CONCLUSION: RTP decisions following structural brain injury in athletes are markedly heterogeneous. While individualized RTP decisions are critical, aggregated expert opinions from 31 international sports neurosurgeons provide key insight. Level of play was found to be an important consideration in RTP determinations.

NIH Roundtable on Emergency Trauma Research.

STUDY OBJECTIVE: The National Institutes of Health (NIH) formed an NIH Task Force on Research in Emergency Medicine to enhance NIH support for emergency care research. The NIH Trauma Research Roundtable was convened on June 22 to 23, 2009. The objectives of the roundtable are to identify key research questions essential to advancing the scientific underpinnings of emergency trauma care and to discuss the barriers and best means to advance research by exploring the role of trauma research networks and collaboration between NIH and the emergency trauma care community. METHODS: Before the roundtable, the emergency care domains to be discussed were selected and experts in each of the fields were invited to participate in the roundtable. Domain experts were asked to identify research priorities and challenges and separate them into mechanistic, translational, and clinical categories. During and after the conference, the lists were circulated among the participants and revised to reach a consensus. RESULTS: Emergency trauma care research is characterized by focus on the timing, sequence, and time sensitivity of disease processes and treatment effects. Rapidly identifying the phenotype of patients on the time spectrum of acuity and severity after injury and the mechanistic reasons for heterogeneity in outcome are important challenges in emergency trauma research. Other research priorities include the need to elucidate the timing, sequence, and duration of causal molecular and cellular events involved in time-critical injuries, and the development of treatments capable of halting or reversing them; the need for novel experimental models of acute injury; the need to assess the effect of development and aging on the postinjury response; and the need to understand why there are regional differences in outcomes after injury. Important barriers to emergency care research include a limited number of trained investigators and experienced mentors, limited research infrastructure and support, and regulatory hurdles. CONCLUSION: The science of emergency trauma care may be advanced by facilitating the following: (1) development of an acute injury template for clinical research; (2) developing emergency trauma clinical research networks; (3) integrating emergency trauma research into Clinical and Translational Science Awards; (4) developing emergency care-specific initiatives within the existing structure of NIH institutes and centers; (5) involving acute trauma and emergency specialists in grant review and research advisory processes; (6) supporting learn-phase or small, clinical trials; (7) performing research to address ethical and regulatory issues; and (8) training emergency care investigators with research training programs.

Rib head disarticulation for multilevel transpedicular thoracic corpectomies and expandable cage reconstruction.

Traditional posterior approaches to the thoracic spine are done with either costo-transversectomy, lateral extracavitary approaches, or transpedicular approaches. The transpedicular approach is the only one that preserves the rib head. However, placing an expandable cage with this rib head intact poses special challenges because of the narrow corridor defined by the rib head and the spinal cord. Instead of removing the rib head, which requires pleural dissection and carries the risks of pleural injury, we disarticulate it and push it laterally during cage placement. This avoids pleural dissection and affords expandable cage placement through a transpedicular approach.

An update on diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers for traumatic brain injury.

INTRODUCTION: Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a major worldwide neurological disorder of epidemic proportions. To date, there are still no FDA-approved therapies to treat any forms of TBI. Encouragingly, there are emerging data showing that biofluid-based TBI biomarker tests have the potential to diagnose the presence of TBI of different severities including concussion, and to predict outcome. Areas covered: The authors provide an update on the current knowledge of TBI biomarkers, including protein biomarkers for neuronal cell body injury (UCH-L1, NSE), astroglial injury (GFAP, S100B), neuronal cell death (αII-spectrin breakdown products), axonal injury (NF proteins), white matter injury (MBP), post-injury neurodegeneration (total Tau and phospho-Tau), post-injury autoimmune response (brain antigen-targeting autoantibodies), and other emerging non-protein biomarkers. The authors discuss biomarker evidence in TBI diagnosis, outcome prognosis and possible identification of post-TBI neurodegernative diseases (e.g. chronic traumatic encephalopathy and Alzheimer's disease), and as theranostic tools in pre-clinical and clinical settings. Expert commentary: A spectrum of biomarkers is now at or near the stage of formal clinical validation of their diagnostic and prognostic utilities in the management of TBI of varied severities including concussions. TBI biomarkers could serve as a theranostic tool in facilitating drug development and treatment monitoring.