Childhood adversity and borderline personality disorder: a meta-analysis.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this meta-analysis was to better understand the magnitude and consistency of the association between childhood adversity and borderline personality disorder (BPD) across case-control, epidemiological and prospective cohort studies. METHOD: Following the review protocol (reference: CRD42017075179), search terms pertaining to adversity and BPD were entered into three search engines. Random-effects meta-analysis synthesised the size and consistency of the effects. RESULTS: A total of 97 studies compared BPD to non-clinical (k = 40) and clinical (k = 70) controls. Meta-analysis of case-control studies indicated that individuals with BPD are 13.91 (95% CI 11.11-17.43) times more likely to report childhood adversity than non-clinical controls. This effect was smaller when considering retrospective cohort (OR: 2.59; 95% CI 0.93-7.30) and epidemiological (OR: 2.56, 95% CI 1.24-5.30) studies. Findings were significant across adversity subtypes with emotional abuse (OR: 38.11, 95% CI: 25.99-55.88) and neglect (OR: 17.73, 95% CI = 13.01-24.17) demonstrating the largest effects. Individuals with BPD were 3.15 (95% CI 2.62-3.79) times more likely to report childhood adversity than other psychiatric groups. CONCLUSIONS: This meta-analysis corroborates theoretical proposals that exposure to adverse life experiences is associated with BPD. It highlights the importance of considering childhood adversity when treating people diagnosed with BPD.

Relationship between childhood adversity and bipolar affective disorder: systematic review and meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: The relationship between childhood adversity and bipolar affective disorder remains unclear. AIMS: To understand the size and significance of this effect through a statistical synthesis of reported research. METHOD: Search terms relating to childhood adversity and bipolar disorder were entered into Medline, EMBASE, PsycINFO and Web of Science. Eligible studies included a sample diagnosed with bipolar disorder, a comparison sample and a quantitative measure of childhood adversity. RESULTS: In 19 eligible studies childhood adversity was 2.63 times (95% CI 2.00-3.47) more likely to have occurred in bipolar disorder compared with non-clinical controls. The effect of emotional abuse was particularly robust (OR = 4.04, 95% CI 3.12-5.22), but rates of adversity were similar to those in psychiatric controls. CONCLUSIONS: Childhood adversity is associated with bipolar disorder, which has implications for the treatment of this clinical group. Further prospective research could clarify temporal causality and explanatory mechanisms.

Sense of hyper-positive self, goal-attainment beliefs and coping strategies in bipolar I disorder.

BACKGROUND: There is some evidence that cognitive therapy (CT) is beneficial in reducing relapses in bipolar disorder. However, not all bipolar patients benefit from it. A previous study found that a group of non-responders to CT shared common characteristics: they value some of the high goal-attainment beliefs and characteristics associated with being in a state of mild hypomania - a high 'sense of hyper-positive self' (SHPS). To promote of our understanding of this group of patients, the present study investigated the relationship between SHPS, preferred internal state, dysfunctional attitudes and coping with hypothetical manic prodromal scenarios. METHOD: Fifty-four bipolar I patients filled in self-report questionnaires that assess preferred mood state, coping with scenarios, dysfunctional attitudes and SHPS. RESULTS: The Sense of Hyper-positive Self Scale Ideal score (SHPSS-Ideal) predicted patients' preferred internal state of mania. Coping with hypothetical scenarios was predicted by Dysfunctional Attitude Scale (DAS) goal-attainment scores: the higher the goal-attainment score, the higher the participant's tendency to identify with self-descriptors linked to hypomania and to engage in stimulating behaviours that may escalate the prodromal stage to mania. CONCLUSIONS: Clinicians should check and modify goal-attainment beliefs, particularly of those who exhibit features of SHPS. These patients' tendency to identify with hypomanic traits as self-descriptors should be dealt with by psychological techniques such as cognitive restructuring.

Perfectionism and psychopathology: a review of research and treatment.

Clinical experience suggests that perfectionism can impede the successful treatment of psychological disorders. This review examines the concept of perfectionism, critically evaluates its assessment, reviews the association between existing measures of perfectionism and psychopathology, and considers the impact of perfectionism on treatment. It is concluded that existing measures do not reflect the original construct of perfectionism and that, consequently, new measures are needed. The evidence reviewed indicates that high personal standards are specifically elevated in patients with eating disorders and beliefs about others' high standards for the self are associated with a broad range of psychopathology. The importance of examining mean scares across studies (as well as associations between variables within studies) is emphasized. There has been no systematic evaluation of the treatment of perfectionism despite existing cognitive-behavioral treatment protocols.

How do I appear to others? Social anxiety and processing of the observable self.

Two information processing biases that could maintain social anxiety were investigated. High and low socially anxious individuals encoded positive and negative trait words in one of three ways: public self-referent, private self-referent, and other-referent. Half were then told they would soon have to give a speech. As predicted, compared to low socially anxious individuals, high socially anxious individuals recalled less positive public self-referent words, but only when both groups were anticipating giving a speech. No memory biases were observed for private self-referent or other-referent words. Next all participants gave a speech. Correlational analyses suggested that high socially anxious individuals may use the somatic concomitants of anxiety to overestimate how anxious they appear and underestimate how well they come across.

Patients with generalized social phobia direct their attention away from faces.

The experiment tested whether patients with social phobia direct their attention to or away from faces with a range of emotional expressions. A modified dot probe paradigm (J. Abnorm. Psychol. 95 (1986) 15) measured whether participants attended more to faces or to household objects. Twenty patients with social phobia were faster in identifying the probe when it occurred in the location of the household objects, regardless of whether the facial expressions were positive, neutral, or negative. In contrast, controls did not exhibit an attentional preference. The results are in line with recent theories of social phobia that emphasize the role of reduced processing of external social cues in maintaining social anxiety.

Selective attention in social phobia and the moderating effect of a concurrent depressive disorder.

Studies using the modified Stroop colour naming task have provided results consistent with the hypothesis that social phobia is associated with an attentional bias towards negative social-evaluative words. However, these results could also have arisen as a consequence of non-attentional processes. For this reason, the present study uses a modified version of MacLeod et al.'s (J. Abnorm. Psychol. 95 (1986) 15) dot-probe task, which provides a more direct measure of attention. Patients with social phobia (n=28), patients with social phobia and a concurrent depressive disorder (n=33), and non-patients (n=40) were presented with word pairs each consisting of a neutral word and a threat word. The results indicated that patients with social phobia show an attentional bias towards social-threat words while non-patients tend to avoid social-threat words. Patients with social phobia and a concurrent depressive disorder behaved like non-patients, indicating that concurrent depression abolishes the attentional bias. Physical threat words were also included in the study. The main analysis indicated that social phobia is also associated with an attentional bias to physical threat. However, a post hoc analysis (which requires replication) suggested that the physical threat bias might have arisen because some social phobia patients also had another anxiety disorder in which physical concerns are likely to have been prominent. Overall, the results emphasise the importance of assessing comorbidity when investigating attentional biases.

Cognitive perspectives on unresolved loss: insights from the study of PTSD.

The authors begin by reviewing recent work on attachment disorganization and its association with parental unresolved loss. They draw connections between this literature and recent theoretical and empirical work on trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). They propose that unresolved loss involves intrusion and avoidance phenomena similar to those of PTSD. Specifically, they develop a model based on the notion that unresolved loss involves the failure to integrate representations of self and the world following a loss. The features of unresolved loss can be understood as emerging as a result of the activation of unintegrated representations of the loss experience and cognitive and behavioral avoidance processes. In this model, the sudden intrusion of memories, cognitions, and emotions associated with the loss automatically captures attention and initiates behavioral dispositions that are incompatible, and hence interfere, with caregiving behavior. Lack of attentional resources and incompatible response-tendencies can also result from safety behaviors directed at avoiding the perceived negative consequences of activating trauma memory. The authors propose that these processes offer a novel way of understanding the disturbances in behavior and speech that are evident in parents who are classified as unresolved with respect to loss in the Adult Attachment Interview.

Empathic curiosity: resolving goal conflicts that generate emotional distress.

The quality of the therapeutic alliance between therapist and client is consistently identified as a key component of cognitive behavioural interventions. However, relatively little is known about the causal mechanisms that generate the effects that are ascribed to the therapeutic alliance. This paper outlines how one such causal mechanism, empathic curiosity, may operate. The explanation is rooted in control theory, a theory that explains the link between our experiences and our goal-directed behaviour. Empathic curiosity is underpinned by the core skills of empathic listening and maintaining a curious attitude. From a control theory perspective, the value of this type of listening may be reinforced when speak to people about their salient concerns, as they perceive them in the current flow of their conscious thoughts. This can be facilitated by linking curious questions to the non-verbal disruptions in their body posture and conversational flow. The approach is illustrated using three case examples. In all three examples, the clients involved were able to reflect upon and re-organize conflicting goals that had been a source of significant emotional distress.

Using behavioural activation in the treatment of depression: a control theory perspective.

Behavioural activation is an intervention that can be used to counteract the typical patterns of withdrawal, avoidance and inactivity that characterize depression. This paper examines the processes of change that may occur during behavioural activation from the perspective of control theory. Some of the key concepts that are associated with control theory are introduced and the process of change that may occur during behavioural activation is illustrated using two case studies. The case studies provide anecdotal evidence which supports the hypothesis that the effective implementation of behavioural activation may depend upon clients being able to retain or regain the sense of control that they value. The differences between a control-theory-based approach and more orthodox behavioural and cognitive approaches are highlighted and the implications of these differences are discussed. Flexible approaches that are informed by control theory, may offer a useful alternative to the more established behavioural and cognitive approaches towards behavioural activation.

Spontaneous breathing with the Bain circuit at low flow rates: a case report.

A clinical case is presented which suggests that spontaneous respiration with the Bain circuit at low flow rates is associated with rebreathing. Controlled ventilation is advised when the Bain circuit is used.