Intoxication and Glasgow coma scale scores in patients with head trauma.

INTRODUCTION: The Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) is an assessment tool commonly used by emergency department (ED) clinicians to objectively describe level of consciousness, especially in trauma patients. This study aims to assess the effect of drug and alcohol intoxication on GCS scores in cases of traumatic head injury. METHODS: In this retrospective chart review study, data were extracted from The Pennsylvania Trauma Systems Foundation Data Base Collection System. Eligible subjects included trauma patients aged 18 years and older, with head trauma, who presented between January 2019 and August 2023. Subjects were matched to controls who did not test positive for drugs or alcohol, matched by Injury Severity Score (ISS) category. RESULTS: Among 1088 subjects, the mean age was 63 (95% CI 62-64). The mean Injury Severity Score was 21 (95% CI 21-22). The median GCS among all subjects was 14 (IQR 6-15). Cases with alcohol or drug use were matched to controls without alcohol or drug use, and were matched by categories of Injury Severity Score. Cases with alcohol or drug use had lower GCS (median 13; IQR 3-15), compared to cases without alcohol or drug use (median 15; IQR 13-15) (p < 0.0001, Wilcoxon Rank Sum Test). CONCLUSIONS: Among patients with head trauma, intoxicated patients had statistically significant lower GCS scores as compared to matched patients with similar Injury Severity Scores.

Clinician assessment of blood alcohol levels among emergency department patients.

INTRODUCTION: Alcohol intoxication is a significant public health concern and is commonly seen among emergency department (ED) patients. This study was undertaken to identify the accuracy of clinician assessment of blood alcohol levels among emergency department patients. METHODS: This prospective survey study was conducted at a Level 1 Trauma Center. Eligible study participants included physicians, nurses, and medical students involved in the care of patients who had BAC. Clinicians estimated the BAC prior to results availability. RESULTS: Among 243 clinicians, the mean difference between the estimated BAC and actual BAC was 17.4 (95% CI: 4.7 to 30.1). Providers tended to overestimate the actual BAC level. The accuracy between roles (attendings, residents, RNs, students) was not significant (ANOVA p-value 0.90). Accuracy was not correlated with age of the patient (Pearson correlation 0.04, p-value 0.54). Accuracy was not associated with the patient's gender (Student's t-test two-tailed p-value 0.90), ethnicity (White versus all others, t-test p-value 0.31), nor insurance (government versus not government, t-test p-value 0.81). The average accuracy value was associated with mode of arrival (t-test p-value 0.003). The average accuracy for walk-in subjects was -14.9 (CI: -32.8 to 3.1) compared to ambulance arrivals 28.3 (CI: 12.7 to 44.0). Providers underestimated BAC for walk-ins and overestimated BAC for ambulance arrivals. Among 107 patients with a BAC of 0, clinician estimates ranged from 0 to 350. Clinicians estimated non-zero BAC levels in 17% of patients with BAC of 0 (N = 18). CONCLUSIONS: Clinicians' estimates of BAC were often inaccurate, and often overestimated the BAC.

Penetrating trauma: Relationships to recreational drug and alcohol use.

INTRODUCTION: The incidence of alcohol and recreational drug use is increasing. The impact on penetrating trauma is unknown. This study was undertaken to identify the incidence of alcohol and recreational drug use prior to penetrating trauma, and to identify ISS and outcomes among patients with penetrating trauma. METHODS: In this retrospective study, eligible subjects included trauma patients age 18 and older, with major trauma (admitted or evaluated by the Trauma Team) from 2017 to 2021. A chart review was conducted to identify data including mechanism of injury, ISS, alcohol level, toxicologic testing, length of stay, and final disposition. RESULTS: Among 1270 adult subjects with penetrating trauma during 2017 through 2020, the majority were male (N = 1071; 84%), and African American (N = 679; 54.3%) or White (N = 537; 42.9%). Mechanisms of injury included gunshot wound (GSW) (N = 973; 76.6%) or stab wound (N = 297; 23.4%). Injury severity score (ISS) ranged from 1 to 75. Among 426 subjects (33.5%) tested for recreational drugs, 395 (93%) were positive for at least one substance. The most common recreational drugs identified included marijuana (N = 280; 65.7%), benzodiazepine ((N = 131;30.8%), alcohol ((N = 248; 25.3%), opiate ((N = 116; 27.2%), cocaine (N = 87; 20.4%), and amphetamine ((N = 84; 19.7%). Subjects with an ISS of 9 to 15 had higher odds of testing positive for opiates compared to subjects with an ISS of 1 to 3 (OR 2.3). Most patients were ultimately discharged home ((N = 912;71.8%) and a minority expired (N = 142; 11.2%). CONCLUSIONS: Positive screens for alcohol and recreational drugs were common among penetrating trauma patients in this setting. The most common identified recreational drugs included marijuana, benzodiazepine, opiates, alcohol, cocaine, and amphetamine.

The effects of acute pain on cognitive skills in emergency department patients.

INTRODUCTION: Effective pain management results in improved patient satisfaction, reduced anxiety, and improved comfort. However, concern exists regarding the effects of pain medications on cognition and patient ability to consent for procedures, hospital admission, or to refuse recommended medical interventions. METHODS: This prospective, case-control study was conducted at a Level 1 Trauma Center. Eligible subjects included ED patients ages 18 and older with a triage pain score of 1 or higher, who received non-narcotic analgesic agents. Cognition was measured before and after non-narcotic pain medication using the Digit Symbol Substitution Test (DSST). A control group consisted of 35 healthy volunteers who completed the DSST at baseline and one hour. RESULTS: Among 46 subjects, the mean age was 33. The mean triage pain score was 7. Before medication, the average DSST score was 39.5. After medication, the average DSST score was 42.9. There was a significant within-subject average change in DSST score (pre-post) of 3.4 (95% confidence interval: 1.6, 5.2), p < 0.001. Among the control group, the mean baseline DSST score was 64.2 (SD 10.7). One hour later the mean DSST score had increased to 71.1 (SD 10.4). Overall, the mean within-subject change over time in DSST was 6.9 (SD 8.0) with 95% CI 4.2 to 9.7. There was not enough evidence to detect relationships between change in DSST scores and age, triage pain, triage HR, triage RR, change in pain scores, gender, ethnicity, mode of arrival nor insurance (all with p > 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: We found significant variation in DSST scores among ED patients with pain. Treatment of pain with nonsedating analgesic agents was not associated with improved scores on the Digit Symbol Substitution Test among ED patients with acute painful conditions, compared to control subjects.

Civility in Health Care: A Moral Imperative.

Civility is an essential feature of health care, as it is in so many other areas of human interaction. The article examines the meaning of civility, reviews its origins, and provides reasons for its moral significance in health care. It describes common types of uncivil behavior by health care professionals, patients, and visitors in hospitals and other health care settings, and it suggests strategies to prevent and respond to uncivil behavior, including institutional codes of conduct and disciplinary procedures. The article concludes that uncivil behavior toward health care professionals, patients, and others subverts the moral goals of health care and is therefore unacceptable. Civility is a basic professional duty that health care professionals should embrace, model, and teach.

The Emergency Medicine Physician Workforce: Projections for 2030.

STUDY OBJECTIVE: The goals of this study were to determine the current and projected supply in 2030 of contributors to emergency care, including emergency residency-trained and board-certified physicians, other physicians, nurse practitioners, and physician assistants. In addition, this study was designed to determine the current and projected demand for residency-trained, board-certified emergency physicians. METHODS: To forecast future workforce supply and demand, sources of existing data were used, assumptions based on past and potential future trends were determined, and a sensitivity analysis was conducted to determine how the final forecast would be subject to variance in the baseline inputs and assumptions. Methods included: (1) estimates of the baseline workforce supply of physicians, nurse practitioners, and physician assistants; (2) estimates of future changes in the raw numbers of persons entering and leaving that workforce; (3) estimates of the productivity of the workforce; and (4) estimates of the demand for emergency care services. The methodology assumes supply equals demand in the base year and estimates the change between the base year and 2030; it then compares supply and demand in 2030 under different scenarios. RESULTS: The task force consensus was that the most likely future scenario is described by: 2% annual graduate medical education growth, 3% annual emergency physician attrition, 20% encounters seen by a nurse practitioner or physician assistant, and 11% increase in emergency department visits relative to 2018. This scenario would result in a surplus of 7,845 emergency physicians in 2030. CONCLUSION: The specialty of emergency medicine is facing the likely oversupply of emergency physicians in 2030. The factors leading to this include the increasing supply of and changing demand for emergency physicians. An organized, collective approach to a balanced workforce by the specialty of emergency medicine is imperative.

Refusal of emergency medical care: An analysis of patients who left without being seen, eloped, and left against medical advice.

OBJECTIVE: Emergency department (ED) patients may elect to refuse any aspect of medical care. They may leave prior to physician evaluation, elope during treatment, or leave against medical advice during treatment. This study was undertaken to identify patient perspectives and reasons for refusal of care. METHODS: This prospective study was conducted at an urban Level 1 Trauma Center. This study examined ED patients who left without being seen (LWBS), eloped during treatment, or left against medical advice during September to December 2018. This project included both chart review and a prospective patient survey. RESULTS: Among 298 participants, the majority were female (54%). Most participants were White (61%) or African American (36%). Thirty-eight percent of participants left against medical advice, 23% eloped, and 39% left without being seen by a provider. When compared to the general ED population, patients who refused care were significantly younger (p < 0.001). When comparing by groups, patients who left AMA were significantly older than those who eloped or left without being seen (p < 0.001). Among 68 patients interviewed by telephone, the most common stated reasons for refusal of care included wait time (23%), unmet expectations (23%), and negative interactions with ED staff (15%). CONCLUSION: ED patients who refused care were significantly younger than the general ED population. Common reasons cited by patients for refusal of care included wait time, unmet expectations, and negative interactions with ED staff.

Delayed diagnosis of splenic injuries: A case series.

INTRODUCTION: Injury of the spleen may result in significant morbidity and mortality, often related to blood loss. Splenic injuries may be missed on the initial Emergency Department (ED) presentation. This study was undertaken to describe cases of delayed diagnosis, and to identify factors associated with delayed diagnosis, treatment, and outcomes. METHODS: This retrospective study examined eligible participants with injury to the spleen who were admitted between July 2015-December 2017. Eligible participants included patients age 16 and over with injury to the spleen, with two or more ED presentations prior to admission and inpatient management. Data collected included age, gender, ethnicity, trauma triage category, vital signs, mechanism of injury, CT diagnosis, time from injury to diagnosis, toxicologic test results, inpatient management, outcome, and days of hospitalization. RESULTS: Among 210 patients with splenic injury, the mean age was 36. Most participants were male (N = 132; 63%) and White (N = 165; 79%). A small percentage (6%) was not diagnosed with splenic injury during the initial ED encounter. Missed diagnosis on the initial ED visit was not associated with age, gender, ethnicity, mechanism of injury, vital signs, grade of injury, intervention, or days of hospitalization. Most patients were discharged home (N = 9); a minority died (N = 1) or were discharged to a rehabilitation facility (N = 1). CONCLUSIONS: In this study, 6% of patients with splenic injury were not diagnosed during the initial ED encounter. These patients with delayed diagnosis had similar grade of injury, need for intervention, days of hospitalization, and outcome.

Seat belt use among patients in motor vehicle collisions: Clinical and demographic factors.

OBJECTIVE: Proper use of automobile seat belt in a motor vehicle crash is associated with reduced morbidity and mortality, shorter hospital stays, reduced resource utilization, and fewer missed work days. Seatbelt compliance nationwide is 86%. This study was undertaken to identify factors associated with noncompliance with seatbelt use among admitted patients following a motor vehicle crash. METHODS: This study was a retrospective analysis of motor vehicle crashes at an Urban Level 1 Trauma Center. Eligible subjects included patients age 18 and over, who were admitted by the Trauma Service following a motor vehicle crash from January to December 2017. RESULTS: Among 766 participants, the overall rate of seatbelt noncompliance was 32% (N = 245). Some participants met the legal limit of intoxication (80 mg/dl) (N = 119 patients; 22%). Drug use was high among this population, including THC (30%), opiates (29%), benzodiazepines (24%), cocaine (10%), and methamphetamine (10%). Patients who did not wear seat belts were more likely to be male (62.4% no seat belt vs. 51.8% seat belt), intoxicated (30.5% vs. 17.0%), screen positive for cocaine (18.2% vs. 4.7%), THC (37.7% vs. 24.2%), and methamphetamine (15.6% vs. 5.9%). We did not detect significant differences by seat belt use with respect to ethnicity, mode of arrival, day of week, opiate use, or benzodiazepine use. CONCLUSIONS: In this study, 32% of patients in motor vehicle crashes were not compliant with seat belt use. Noncompliance with seat belt use was higher among patients who were male, younger age, intoxicated, or who had positive screens for cocaine, THC, or methamphetamine.

Risk factors for pneumonia following rib fractures.

INTRODUCTION: Pneumonia is a known complication following rib fractures. This study was undertaken to identify clinical and demographic factors associated with the development of pneumonia among trauma patients with rib fractures. METHODS: This retrospective study examined trauma patients with one or more rib fractures, who were admitted for inpatient management during the time period 2012 through 2017. Variables studied included age, gender, injury severity score (ISS), mechanism of injury, smoking status, alcohol use, administration of influenza and pneumococcal vaccine, number and side of rib fracture(s), pulmonary contusion, pneumothorax, flail chest, spirometer use, blood transfusion, and intravenous fluid administration. RESULTS: Among 78 cases and 74 controls (matched for age and ISS), patients who developed pneumonia were more likely to be male, have higher number of rib fractures, alcohol consumption of 1-5 drinks per day, and a higher initial volume of intravenous fluids during first 24 h. Patients with pneumonia were more likely to be treated with incentive spirometry. There were no difference in age, ISS, smoking status, side of rib fractures, pulmonary contusion, pneumothorax, flail chest, influenza vaccination, pneumonia vaccination, or mechanism of injury between the two groups. CONCLUSION: Risk factors for the development of pneumonia following rib fractures include male gender, higher number of rib fractures, alcohol consumption, and higher rates of intravenous fluid administration during the initial 24 h following trauma.

Emergency physician care of family members, friends, colleagues and self.

Emergency Physicians are frequently called upon to treat family members, friends, colleagues, subordinates or others with whom they have a personal relationship; or they may elect to treat themselves. This may occur in the Emergency Department (ED), outside of the ED, as an informal, or "curbside" consultation, long distance by telecommunication or even at home at any hour. In surveys, the vast majority of physicians report that they have provided some level of care to family members, friends, colleagues or themselves, sometime during their professional career. Despite being common, this practice raises ethical concerns and concern for the welfare of both the patient and the physician. This article suggests ethical and practical guidance for the emergency physician as to how to approach these situations.

Emergency medicine practice environment and impact on concert examination performance.

OBJECTIVE: The ABEM ConCert Examination is a summative examination that ABEM-certified physicians are required to pass once in every 10-year cycle to maintain certification. This study was undertaken to identify practice settings of emergency physicians, and to determine if there was a difference in performance on the 2017 ConCert between physicians of differing practice types and settings. METHODS: This was a mixed methods cross sectional-study, using a post-examination survey and test performance data. All physicians taking the 2017 ConCert Examination who completed three survey questions pertaining to practice type, practice locations, and teaching were included. These three questions address different aspects of academia: self-identification, an academic setting, and whether the physician teaches. RESULTS: Among 2796 test administrations of the 2017 ConCert Examination, 2693 (96.3%) completed the three survey questions about practice environment. The majority (N = 2054; 76.3%) self-identified as primarily being a community physician, 528 (19.6%) as academic, and 111 (4.1%) as other. The average ConCert Examination score for community physicians was 83.5 (95% CI, 83.3-83.8); the academic group was 84.8 (95% CI, 84.3-85.3); and the other group was 82.3 (95% CI, 81.1-83.6). After controlling for initial ability as measured by the Qualifying Examination score, there was no significant difference in performance between academic and community physicians (p = .10). CONCLUSIONS: Academic emergency physicians and community emergency physicians scored similarly on the ConCert. Working at a community teaching hospital was associated with higher examination performance. Teaching medical learners, especially non-emergency medicine residents, was also associated with better examination performance.

American Board of Emergency Medicine Report on Residency and Fellowship Training Information (2017-2018).

The American Board of Emergency Medicine (ABEM) gathers extensive background information on emergency medicine-sponsored residency and fellowship programs, as well as the residents and fellows training in those programs. We present the 2018 annual report on the status of US emergency medicine training programs.

Effects of opioid medications on cognitive skills among Emergency Department patients.

INTRODUCTION: Treatment for pain and related conditions has been identified as the most common reason for Emergency Department (ED) visits. Concerns exist regarding the effects of opioid pain medications on cognition and patient ability to consent for procedures, hospital admission, or to refuse recommended medical interventions. This study was undertaken to identify cognitive skills before and after opioid pain medication in the ED setting. METHODS: This was a prospective study comparing performance on the Mini-Mental Status Examination (MMSE) and Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) before and after administration of opioid pain medications. Eligible participants included ED patients with pain, who received opioid treatment. Participants were randomized to receive either the MMSE before pain medication and the MoCA after medication, or the reverse. MoCA scores were converted to MMSE equivalent scores for comparison. RESULTS: Among 65 participants, the median age was 36 and median triage pain score was 8. 35% of patients were considered cognitively impaired based on their MMSE score prior to any opioid medication (MMSE<27). There was a median decrease in pain scores of 1 point following pain medication, p-value<0.001. There was a median decrease in MMSE scores of 1 point following pain medication, p-value=0.003. The range of change in scores (post minus pre) on the MMSE-equivalent was -7 to 3. 35 patients (56%) had a decrease in scores, 6 (10%) had no change, and 21 (34%) had an increase. After medication, 31 (48%) were abnormal (MMSE score<27). No differences in MMSE scores were identified by gender, ethnicity, mode of arrival, insurance, age, triage pain scores, opioid agent given, or ED diagnosis. CONCLUSIONS: There is an association between opioid pain medication and decrease in cognitive performance on the MMSE. Because of the wide range of cognitive performance following opioid pain medication, assessment of individual patients' cognitive function is indicated.

Naloxone Use Among Emergency Department Patients with Opioid Overdose.

BACKGROUND: Emergency department (ED) visits for unintentional opioid overdoses have increased dramatically. Naloxone hydrochloride (Narcan®) is an opioid antagonist commonly used to treat these overdoses. OBJECTIVE: This study was undertaken to identify experiences regarding naloxone use among ED patients with opioid overdose. METHODS: This prospective survey study was conducted at an urban level I trauma center. A survey was administered to eligible ED patients after unintentional opioid overdose. This study identified current and previous use of naloxone among ED patients with opioid overdose. RESULTS: Eight-nine ED patients with accidental overdose of opioids participated (90% participation rate). Most participants reported a history of opioid overdose (n = 62 [70%]). A significant minority stated they have had access to a naloxone kit (n = 28 [31%]). Most participants with a naloxone kit stated that their frequency and dosage of opiate use did not change after access to naloxone (n = 17 [63%]), and a few used opiates more often (n = 1 [4%]) or less often (n = 9 [33%]). There was a significant negative correlation between total dose and age (Spearman ρ -0.27; p = 0.01). There was no association between dose and sex. CONCLUSIONS: Many patients presenting with opioid overdose have had a history of opioid overdose. Patients with opioid overdose required a highly variable dose of naloxone. Higher doses of naloxone were associated with lower age. Despite widespread availability of naloxone to consumers, a minority of patients in this study reported access to naloxone. Participants who had access to a naloxone kit stated that their frequency and dosage of opioid use did not change.

Well-Being among Emergency Medicine Resident Physicians: Results from the ABEM Longitudinal Study of Emergency Medicine Residents.

BACKGROUND: The Longitudinal Study of Emergency Medicine Residents (LSEMR) conducted by the American Board of Emergency Medicine queries a randomized cohort of emergency medicine (EM) residents. It is designed to identify residents' perceptions of their training, sources of stress, well-being level, and career choice satisfaction over time. OBJECTIVES: This study utilizes LSEMR to identify resident well-being levels, career satisfaction, factors producing stress, and whether a specific cohort is more stressed than the overall respondent group. METHODS: Data from five longitudinal cohorts were analyzed using descriptive statistics to assess stressors, career satisfaction, and self-reported resident well-being. Participants' answers were reported on a 5-point Likert scale. RESULTS: There were 766 residents who completed the survey in five cohorts. Respondents were 30 years old (median 29), male (66%), and predominantly White (79%). The most frequently encountered problems included "time devoted to documentation and bureaucratic issues," "knowing enough," and "crowding in the emergency department." In contrast, the least frequently reported problems included "gender discrimination," "EMS support," "minority discrimination," and "other residents." Respondents thought being an EM resident was fun and would select EM again. Less than 20% indicated they had seriously considered transferring to another EM program. Resident reports of health concerns changed over time, with fewer residents reporting they were exceptionally healthy in 2016. CONCLUSIONS: Residents are, overall, happy with their career choice. However, concern was expressed regarding continued well-being in training. Sources of stress in training are identified. Strategies should be developed to decrease identified stressors and increase well-being among EM residents.

Refusal of Emergency Medical Treatment: Case Studies and Ethical Foundations.

Informed consent is an important component of emergency medical treatment. Most emergency department patients can provide informed consent for treatment upon arrival. Informed consent should also be obtained for emergency medical interventions that may entail significant risk. A related concept to informed consent is informed refusal of treatment. Patients may refuse emergency medical treatment during their evaluation and treatment. This article addresses important considerations for patients who refuse treatment, including case studies and discussion of definitions, epidemiology, assessment of decisional capacity, information delivery, medicolegal considerations, and alternative care plans.