Unraveling cervical cancer screening dilemmas: histopathological insights from VIA and LEEP at bugando medical centre, Mwanza.

BACKGROUND: The single-visit strategy, also known as the "screen-and-treat" approach, is widely used to screen for cervical cancer in low- and middle-income countries. The screen-and-treat approach leads to unnecessary or inadequate treatment. Thus, a study was conducted to determine the histopathological patterns of aceto-white lesions on visual inspection with acetic acid (VIA) in patients who underwent a Loop Electrosurgical Excision Procedure (LEEP) at Bugando Medical Centre between January 2016 and December 2020. METHOD: A 5-year retrospective cross-sectional case record review was conducted on 329 women who had LEEP at Bugando Medical Centre following a positive VIA cervical screening test. A standard data abstraction form was used to collect patient information. Missing client information records and LEEP without histopathological results were exclusion criteria. For statistical analysis, STATA version 15 was used; in descriptive statistics, frequency, mean, and standard deviation were used. The Chi2 and Fisher's exact tests were used to investigate the relationship between patient characteristics and histopathological patterns, and a P-value of 0.05 was considered statistically significant in multinomial models. RESULTS: This study looked at 329 patients who had LEEP following a VIA positive but were not eligible for cryotherapy. Our study participants had a mean age of 40 ± 8.2 SD. There were 203 (61.7%) patients with benign lesions, including 4 with schistosomiasis and 2 with cervical tuberculosis. The precancerous lesions were discovered in 100 cases (30.4%), and 26 (7.9%) already had invasive cervical cancer. Out of 100 patients with precancerous lesions, 58 (17.6%) and 42 (12.8%) have high- and low-grade squamous intraepithelial (HSIL and LSIL) lesions, respectively. The presence of a precancerous lesion was found to be associated with age 31-40 years (P-value 0.042) and HIV positivity (P-value 0.004). CONCLUSION: Most patients in this study had benign cervical lesions, which do not require LEEP treatment. Nonetheless, a considerable percentage of invasive cervical malignancies and rare benign diseases such as schistosomiasis and cervical tuberculosis were identified. A screen-and-treat approach within well-equipped tertiary hospitals like Bugando Medical Centre should explore alternative options instead of relying solely on straight LEEP.

Effects of schistosomes on host anti-viral immune response and the acquisition, virulence, and prevention of viral infections: A systematic review.

Although a growing number of studies suggest interactions between Schistosoma parasites and viral infections, the effects of schistosome infections on the host response to viruses have not been evaluated comprehensively. In this systematic review, we investigated how schistosomes impact incidence, virulence, and prevention of viral infections in humans and animals. We also evaluated immune effects of schistosomes in those coinfected with viruses. We screened 4,730 studies and included 103. Schistosomes may increase susceptibility to some viruses, including HIV and Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus, and virulence of hepatitis B and C viruses. In contrast, schistosome infection may be protective in chronic HIV, Human T-cell Lymphotropic Virus-Type 1, and respiratory viruses, though further research is needed. Schistosome infections were consistently reported to impair immune responses to hepatitis B and possibly measles vaccines. Understanding the interplay between schistosomes and viruses has ramifications for anti-viral vaccination strategies and global control of viral infections.

Prevalence of Schistosoma mansoni, soil-transmitted helminths and intestinal protozoa in orphans and street children in Mwanza city, Northern Tanzania.

BACKGROUND: Parasitic infections are highly prevalent in low-income environments worldwide. While orphans and street children represent a particularly vulnerable population group, they are often exempt from preventive interventions such as Mass Drug Administration. In part, this could be due to a lack of data showing the burden of disease in this group. This study aims to address this gap. METHODS: For this cross-sectional study, 144 orphans and 112 street children were screened for Schistosoma mansoni (S. mansoni), Schistosoma haematobium (S. haematobium), soil-transmitted helminths and intestinal protozoa using POC-CCA testing, urine filtration, and Kato-Katz technique. Nutritional status, water- and washing patterns were determined using a standardised questionnaire. Ultrasonography was performed to screen for organ abnormalities. RESULTS: The prevalence of S. mansoni determined by POC-CCA-test was 65.9% for orphans and 94.5% for street children. 19.2% of the orphans tested positive for S. mansoni in Kato Katz. Of the street children, 77.1% showed positive test results in Kato-Katz. Only 1.3% of the orphans stated in the questionnaire that they use the lake to wash, whereas 91.1% of the street children named the lake as at least one of their options for washing. Microscopy showed positive results for Giardia intestinalis (G. intestinalis) in 8.2% and for Entamoeba histolytica/dispar (E. histolytica/dispar) in 23% of orphans and 8.1% for G. intestinalis, and 23.8% for E. histolytica/dispar in street children. In the ultrasonography, we did not observe patterns that indicate severe periportal fibrosis. CONCLUSION: The results indicate a significantly higher rate of infections with S. mansoni in street children compared with orphans. This might be explained by the lack of access to adequate sanitation for street children as well as regular contact with the water of Lake Victoria. However, we did not find similar results concerning infection rates with protozoa. The study results show overall inadequate living conditions in this study population, which could be addressed by public health interventions.

Hand hygiene intervention to optimise soil-transmitted helminth infection control among primary school children: the Mikono Safi cluster randomised controlled trial in northwestern Tanzania.

BACKGROUND: Soil-transmitted helminth (STH) infections are highly prevalent in resource-limited countries. We assessed the effect of a combination intervention aiming to enhance handwashing with soap on STH reinfection following mass drug administration among primary school children in Kagera region, Northwestern Tanzania. METHODS: We conducted a cluster randomised trial in sixteen primary schools with known high STH prevalence. Schools were randomly assigned in a 1:1 ratio to either receive the intervention or continue with routine health education. The intervention included teacher-led classroom teaching, parental engagement sessions, environmental modifications and improved handwashing stations. The evaluation involved two cross-sectional surveys in a representative sample of students, with the end-line survey conducted 12 months after the baseline survey. The primary outcome was the combined prevalence of Ascaris lumbricoides and Trichuris trichiura infections at the end-line survey. Secondary outcomes included reported handwashing behaviour, the prevalence and intensity of individual STHs, and hand contamination with STH ova and coliform bacteria. End-line STH prevalence and intensity were adjusted for baseline differences of potential confounders. RESULTS: At the end-line survey, 3081 school children (1566 from intervention schools and 1515 from control schools) provided interview data and stool specimens. More school children in the intervention group reported the use of water and soap during handwashing compared to school children in the control group (58% vs. 35%; aOR=1.76, 95%CI 1.28-2.43, p=0.001). The combined prevalence of A. lumbricoides and T. trichiura infections was 39% in both trial arms (aOR = 1.19; 95%CI 0.74-1.91). The prevalence of A. lumbricoides was 15% in the intervention and 17% in the control arm (aOR =1.24, 95%CI 0.59-2.59) and that of T. trichiura was 31% in both arms (aOR=1.17, 95%CI 0.73-1.88). No significant differences were found for STH infection intensity in both the main study and the hand contamination sub-study. CONCLUSIONS: The intervention was effective in increasing reported handwashing behaviour at school, but failed to show a similar effect in the home. The intervention had no effect on STH infection, possibly due to infection in the home environment, other transmission routes such as contaminated water or food or limited changes in school children's handwashing behaviour. TRIAL REGISTRATION: The trial was registered on June 21, 2017, by the International Standard Randomised Controlled Trial Number ( ISRCTN45013173) .

Schistosoma mansoni-related periportal fibrosis; can we use APRI and PSDR levels in the real-time selection of patients for targeted endoscopy in a resource-limited setting? A case-control study.

BACKGROUND: Schistosoma mansoni related hepatic fibrosis is usually associated with hemodynamic alteration with increased mortality due to bleeding varices. The diagnosis of varices before bleeding imposes a big challenge in resource-limited countries using endoscopy. Published evidence on the utility of non-invasive clinical tools in predicting the presence of varices among patients with S. mansoni related periportal fibrosis is still inadequate including Aspartate to platelet ratio index (APRI) and Platelet to splenic diameter ratio (PSDR) levels. This study describes the determinants of portal varices and assesses the potential utility of the APRI and PSDR level in the discrimination of portal varices among patients with S. mansoni related periportal fibrosis (PPF). METHODS: A case-control study using cross-sectional data was done among patients with Schistosoma mansoni related periportal fibrosis at Bugando Medical Centre, in Mwanza Tanzania. The derivation cohort included patients enrolled between 2015 and 2019 and the validation cohort included patients enrolled from 2019 till March 2021. Socio-demographic, laboratory, ultrasound, and upper digestive endoscopic information were analyzed using STATA 13. The prevalence and determinants of varices were determined by logistic regression. The sensitivity and specificity of independent factors were determined to assess their utility in discriminating the presence of portal varices in patients with PPF. RESULTS: In total, 250 patients were included in the derivation cohort, 109 (43.6%; 95% CI 37.3-49.9) of them had varices. The odds of having varices were independently increased among patients with higher APRI levels than 1.51, (AOR: 5.8; 95% CI 3.1-11.1; p < 0.001) and PSDR levels that were lower than 5700 (AOR: 5.9; 95% CI 3.2-11.2; p < 0.001). Both APRI and PSDR levels had significantly high sensitivity and specificity in predicting the presence of esophageal varices. However, the combined values of APRI and PSDR had higher specificity than any of the two markers. Of the 200 patients in the validation cohort 94 (47.0%; 95% CI 40.0-54.2) had varices, the discriminative power of the final model and the predictive ability of both APRI, PSDR, and APRI-PSDR combined levels were highly maintained. CONCLUSIONS: This study indicates that varices are a common encounter among patients with S. mansoni related periportal fibrosis and it is independently associated with higher APRI and lower PSDR levels suggesting that these tools are potential discriminators of varices in this subgroup of patients. The reproducibility of these results should further be assessed longitudinally as potential non-invasive tools in selecting patients at high risk of having esophageal varices who could benefit from the targeted endoscopic intervention in a resource-limited setting like ours.

Primary health care facilities capacity gaps regarding diagnosis, treatment and knowledge of schistosomiasis among healthcare workers in North-western Tanzania: a call to strengthen the horizontal system.

BACKGROUND: The World Health Organization (WHO) calls for schistosomiasis endemic countries to integrate schistosomiasis control measures into the primary health care (PHC) services; however, in Tanzania, little is known about the capacity of the primary health care system to assume this role. The objective of this study was to assess the capacity of the primary health care system to diagnose and treat schistosomiasis in endemic regions of north-western Tanzania. METHODS: A total of 80 randomly-selected primary health care facilities located in the Uyui, Geita and Ukerewe districts of North-western Tanzania participated in the study. At each facility, the in-charge clinician, or any other healthcare worker appointed by the in-charge clinician, participated in the questionnaire survey. A quantitative questionnaire installed in a Data Tool Kit software was used to collect data. Healthcare workers working at various stations (laboratory, pharmacy, data clerks, outpatient section) were interviewed. The questionnaire collected information related to healthcare workers' knowledge about urogenital and intestinal schistosomiasis symptoms, human and material resources, laboratory services, data capture, and anti-schistosomiasis treatment availability. RESULTS: A total of 80 healthcare workers were interviewed. Bloody stool (78.3 %) and haematuria (98.7 %) were the most common symptoms of intestinal and urogenital schistosomiasis mentioned by healthcare workers. Knowledge on the chronic symptoms such as hepatosplenomegaly and hematemesis for intestinal schistosomiasis, and oliguria and dysuria for urogenital schistosomiasis, were inadequate. Laboratory services were only available in 33.8 % (27/80) of the health facilities and direct wet preparation was the most common diagnostic technique used for both urine and stool samples. All healthcare workers knew that praziquantel was the drug of choice for the treatment of schistosomiasis and the drug was available in 91.3 % (73/80) of the health facilities. CONCLUSIONS: The capacity of the primary health care facilities included in the current study is inadequate in terms of diagnosis, treatment, reporting and healthcare workers' knowledge of schistosomiasis. Thus, the integration of schistosomiasis control activities into the primary healthcare system requires these gaps to be addressed.

Malaria mosquito control in rice paddy farms using biolarvicide mixed with fertilizer in Tanzania: semi-field experiments.

BACKGROUND: The wide distribution of malaria mosquito breeding sites within tropical environments limits the mosquito larval source management efforts to control malaria. Rice farming contributes substantially in supporting malaria mosquito productivity in tropical countries. To overcome this challenge, this study was carried out to determine the effect of applying a mixture of biolarvicide and fertilizer on mosquito larvae density in rice farms under semi-field conditions in Tanzania. METHODS: A semi-field experiment was designed to determine the timing of application of a biolarvicide, Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis (Bti) and fertilizer (di-ammonium phosphate-DAP or urea) and assess their effect on mosquito larvae density and rice grain outputs. The experiment had five blocks (4 treatment arms and one control arm) and each had four replicates. Treatment arms had different intervals of days between treatments for mixtures of fertilizer and biolarvicides. The dosages used were 10 g of Bti/16 M2 and 160 g of DAP/Urea/16 m2. RESULTS: In overall, the intervention blocks (with biolarvicide) had lowest mean mosquito larvae abundance compared to control block (F = 22.42, P < 0.001). Similarly, the control arm maintained highest density of Anopheles gambiae sensu lato larvae compared to interventions blocks (F = 21.6, P < 0.001). The best determined timing for application of Bti was in 7 and in 10 days (F = 3.753, P < 0.001). There was neither significant different in mean rice grain harvest per ten panicle (F = 1.453, P = 0.27) nor mean difference in rice grain harvest (F = 1.479, P = 0.26) per intervention arms. CONCLUSION: The findings of this study have shown that application of a mixture of Bti and fertilizer have impact on both mosquito larvae density and maintaining yield rice harvest. Thus, application of a combination of biolarvicide and fertilizer can be an alternative approach in malaria mosquito intervention among rice farming communities of rural Tanzania.

Rice farmers' perceptions and acceptability in the use of a combination of biolarvicide (Bacillus thuringiensis var. israeliensis) and fertilizers application for malaria control and increase rice productivity in a rural district of central Tanzania.

BACKGROUND: The use of larval source management as a supplementary intervention for malaria control has not been widely used in rural Africa due to perceived high costs and complex logistics. To reduce the cost of larviciding in rice farming communities, concurrent application of biolarvicides and fertilizer in rice fields was introduced to control malaria vectors larvae and improve rice grain yields. The present study determined rice farmers' perceptions and acceptability in the use of a combination of biolarvicide and fertilizers in farming practices. METHODS: This was a qualitative study conducted among rice farmers at Kilangali village, south-central Tanzania. Semi-structured interviews and three focus group discussions (FGDs) were conducted with men and women who participated in the biolarvicide and fertilizer application project. The interviews and discussion focused on knowledge, attitudes and perceptions of participants on the use of the innovation in their farming practices and their willingness to pay for the innovation. RESULTS: A total of 40 (mean age = 38.8 ± 10.12 years) rice farmers were involved in the study. Overall, all farmers agreed that it was possible to apply the two products concurrently with minimal challenges. The trust on the safety of biolarvicides on both human and paddy health was high. Respondents reported no challenge in preparation and applying the product in their rice fields. Over half (56.6%) of the participants reported an average decrease in mosquito density in their households and a quarter (26.6%) of them reported a decrease in mosquito population in their farms. Similarly, 93.3% of the participants reported that the intervention had reduced malaria risk in their households. In general, all participants expressed willingness to contribute to a biolarvicide and fertilizer programme and to use the approach in their farming practices. CONCLUSION: Community-based concurrent application of biolarvicides and fertilizer in rice fields was feasible and led to a perceived reduction in mosquito density. Willingness to pay for the larviciding/fertilizer approach was expressed by participants and they accepted to use the approach in their future farming practices. However, the impact of this approach on malaria transmission and rice grain harvest need to be evaluated in a large-scale programme.

Bio-efficacy and wash resistance of MAGNet long-lasting insecticidal net against wild populations of Anopheles funestus in experimental huts in Muheza, Tanzania.

BACKGROUND: The decline in malaria cases and vectors is major milestone in fighting against malaria. The efficacy of MAGNet long-lasting insecticidal nets (MAGNet LLIN), an alpha-cypermethrin incorporated long-lasting net, with the target dose ± 25% of 5.8 g active ingredient (AI)/kg (4.35-7.25 g AI/kg) was evaluated in six veranda-trap experimental huts in Muheza, Tanzania against freely flying wild population of Anopheles funestus. METHODS: MAGNet LLINs were tested against wild, free-flying, host-seeking An. funestus mosquitoes over a period of 6 weeks (total of 36 nights in the huts). MAGNet LLIN efficacy was determined in terms of mosquito mortality, blood-feeding inhibition, deterrence, induced exiting, personal protection, and insecticidal killing over 20 washes according to WHO standardized procedures. Efficacy was compared with reference to a WHOPES recommended approved LLINs (DuraNet) and to a net conventionally treated (CTN) treated with alpha-cypermethrin at WHO-recommended dose and washed to just before cut-off point. The efficacy of MAGNet was evaluated in experimental huts against wild, free-flying, pyrethroid-resistant An. funestus. The WHO-susceptibility method was used to detect resistance in wild Anopheles exposed to 0.75% permethrin. Mosquito mortality, blood-feeding inhibition and personal protection were compared between untreated nets and standard LLINs. Blood-feeding rates were recorded and compared between the 20 times washed; blood-feeding rates between 20 times washed MAGNet LLIN and 20 times washed WHOPES-approved piperonyl butoxide (PBO)/pyrethroid were not statistically different (p > 0.05). RESULTS: The results have evidently shown that MAGNet LLIN provides similar blood-feeding inhibition, exophily, mortality, and deterrence to the standard approved LLIN, thus meeting the WHOPES criteria for blood feeding. The significantly high feeding inhibition and personal protection over pyrethroid-resistant An. funestus recorded by both unwashed and 20 times washed MAGNet compared to the unwashed DuraNet, the WHOPES-approved standard pyrethroid-only LLIN provides proof of MAGNet meeting Phase II WHOPES criteria for a LLIN. CONCLUSION: Based on this study, MAGNet has been shown to have a promising impact on protection when 20 times washed against a highly resistant population of An. funestus.

The magnitude and correlates of esophageal Varices among newly diagnosed cirrhotic patients undergoing screening fibre optic endoscope before incident bleeding in North-Western Tanzania; a cross-sectional study.

BACKGROUND: Bleeding esophageal varices is a deadly complication of liver cirrhosis. Guidelines recommend an early diagnosis of esophageal varices before incident bleeding by screening all patients diagnosed with liver cirrhosis. Though it has been reported elsewhere that the presence of esophageal varices varies widely among cirrhotic patients this has not been assessed in Tanzania since endoscopy is not readily available for routine use in our setting. This study was designed to determine the prevalence of esophageal varices and assess the utility of clinical parameters in predicting the presence of varices among cirrhotic patients in northwestern Tanzania. METHODS: A cross-sectional analysis of adult patients with liver cirrhosis was done at Bugando Medical Centre. Demographic, clinical, laboratory and endoscopic data were collected and analyzed using STATA 13. The presence of esophageal varices was detected using endoscopic examination and associated factors were assessed by logistic regression. The predictive value of clinical predictors was also assessed by calculating sensitivity and specificity. RESULTS: A total of 223 patients were enrolled, where 88 (39.5%; 95%CI: 33.0-45.9) had esophageal varices. The varices were independently associated with increased age (OR: 1.02; 95%CI: 1.0-1.04; p = 0.030); increased splenic diameter (OR:1.3; 95%CI:1.2-1.5; p <  0.001), increased portal vein diameter (OR:1.2; 95%CI: 1.07-1.4; p = 0.003), having ascites (OR: 3.0; 95%CI: 1.01-8.7; p = 0.046), and advanced liver disease (OR: 2.9; 95%CI: 1.3-6.7; p = 0.008). PSDR least performed in predicting varices, (AUC: 0.382; 95%CI: 0.304-0.459; cutoff: < 640; Sensitivity: 58.0%; 95%CI: 46.9-68.4; specificity: 57.0%; 95%CI: 48.2-65.5). SPD had better prediction; (AUC: 0.713; 95%CI: 0.646-0.781; cut off: > 15.2 cm; sensitivity: 65.9%; (95% CI: 55-75.7 and specificity:65.2%; 95%CI: 56.5-73.2), followed by PVD, (AUC: 0.6392; 95%CI: 0.566-0.712;cutoff: > 1.45 cm; sensitivity: 62.5%; 95CI: 51.5-72.6; specificity: 61.5%; 95%CI: 52.7-69.7). CONCLUSION: Esophageal varices were prevalent among cirrhotic patients, most of which were at risk of bleeding. The non-invasive prediction of varices was not strong enough to replace endoscopic diagnosis. However, the predictors in this study can potentially assist in the selection of patients at high risk of having varices and prioritize them for endoscopic screening and appropriate management.

Intestinal schistosomiasis of Ijinga Island, north-western Tanzania: prevalence, intensity of infection, hepatosplenic morbidities and their associated factors.

BACKGROUND: Intestinal schistosomiasis is highly endemic in Tanzania and mass drug administration (MDA) using praziquantel is the mainstay of the control program. However, the MDA program covers only school aged children and does not include neither adult individuals nor other public health measures. The Ijinga schistosomiasis project examines the impact of an intensified treatment protocol with praziquantel MDA in combination with additional public health interventions. It aims to investigate the feasibility of eliminating intestinal schistosomiasis in a highly endemic African setting using an integrated community-based approach. In preparation of this project, we report about baseline data on S.mansoni prevalence, intensity of infection, related hepatosplenic morbidities and their associated factors. METHODS: A cross sectional study was conducted among 930 individuals aged 1-95 years living at Ijinga Island, north-western Tanzania in September 2016. Single stool and urine samples were collected from each study participant and processed using Kato Katz (KK) technique and point-of-care Circulating Cathodic (POC-CCA) antigen test for detection of S.mansoni eggs and antigen respectively. Ultrasonographical examination for S.mansoni hepatosplenic morbidities was done to all participants. For statistical analyses Fisher's exact test, chi-square test, student-t-test, ANOVA and linear regression were used where applicable. RESULTS: Overall based on KK technique and POC-CCA test, 68.9% (95%CI: 65.8-71.8) and 94.5% (95%CI: 92.8-95.8) were infected with S.mansoni. The overall geometrical mean eggs per gram (GMepg) of faeces was 85.7epg (95%CI: 77.5-94.8). A total of 27.1, 31.2 and 51.9% of the study participants had periportal fibrosis (PPF-grade C-F), splenomegaly and hepatomegaly. Risk factors for PPF were being male (aRR = 1.08, 95%CI: 1.02-1.16, P < 0.01), belong to the age group 16-25 years (aRR = 1.23, 95%CI: 105-1.44, P < 0.01), 26-35 years (aRR = 1.42, 95%CI: 1.21-1.67, P < 0.001), 36-45 years (aRR = 1.56, 95%CI:1.31-1.84, P < 0.001) and ≥ 46 years (aRR = 1.64, 95%CI:1.41-1.92, P < 0.001). The length of the left liver lobe was associated with being female (P < 0.03), belong to the age group 1-5 years (P < 0.013), 6-15 years (P < 0.04) and S.mansoni intensity of infection (P < 0.034). Male sex (aRR = 1.15, 95%CI:1.06-1.24, P < 0.001) and belonging to the age groups 16-25 years (aRR = 1.27, 95%CI:1.05-1.54, P < 0.02) or 26-35 years (aRR = 1.32, 95%CI:108-1.61, P < 0.01) were associated with splenomegaly. CONCLUSION: Schistosoma mansoni infection and its related morbidities (hepatomegaly, splenomegaly, periportal fibrosis) are common in the study area. Age, sex and intensity of infection were associated with periportal fibrosis. The prevalence of S.mansoni was above 50% in each age group and based on the observed prevalence, we recommend MDA to the entire community.

Association between Schistosoma mansoni infection and access to improved water and sanitation facilities in Mwea, Kirinyaga County, Kenya.

BACKGROUND: Schistosomiasis remains a public health problem in Central Kenya despite concerted control efforts. Access to improved water and sanitation has been emphasized as important control measures. Few studies have assessed the association between access to improved water sources and sanitation facilities with Schistosoma mansoni infection in different environmental settings. This study assessed the association between S. mansoni infection and household access to improved water sources and sanitation facilities in Mwea, Kirinyaga County, Kenya. METHODS: A cross sectional study was conducted between the months of August and October 2017. A total of 905 household heads from seven villages were interviewed and their stool samples screened for S. mansoni using the Kato Katz technique. Comparisons of demographic factors by S. mansoni infection were tested for significance using the chi-square test (χ2) or the Fisher exact test for categorical variables. Variables associated with S. mansoni infection were analyzed using univariable analysis and the strength of the association measured as odds ratio (OR) using mixed effects logistic regression at 95% CI, with values considered significant at p < 0.05. RESULTS: The overall prevalence of S. mansoni was, 23.1% (95% CI: 20.5-26.0%), with majority of the infections being of light intensity. Rurumi village had the highest prevalence at 33.3%, with Kirogo village having the least prevalence at 7.0%. Majority (84.1%) of the households lacked access to improved water sources but had access to improved sanitation facilities (75%). Households with access to piped water had the lowest S. mansoni infections. However, there was no significant association between S. mansoni infections with either the main source of water in the household (Odds Ratio (OR) =0.782 (95% CI: 0.497-1.229) p = 0.285 or sanitation facilities (OR = 1.018 (95% CI: 0.705-1.469) p = 0.926. CONCLUSION: Our study suggests that S. mansoni is still a public health problem among all age groups in Mwea irrigation scheme, Kirinyaga County, Central Kenya. Majority of the households lacks access to improved water sources but have access to improved sanitation facilities. This study recommends initiatives to ensure adequate provision of improved water sources, and the inclusion of the adult community in preventive chemotherapy programs.

Factors associated with relevant knowledge of intestinal schistosomiasis and intention to participate in treatment campaigns: a cross sectional survey among school children at Ijinga Island on Lake Victoria, North-Western Tanzania.

BACKGROUND: Annual Mass Drug Administration (MDA) using praziquantel targeting primary school children is the main control strategy against schistosomiasis in Tanzania. However, there are concerns about decreasing participation in mass drug administration among primary school children for unknown reasons. Therefore, the aim of this study was to identify factors related to relevant knowledge about schistosomiasis and the intention to participate in mass drug administration among primary school children in order to give recommendations for future projects. METHODS: A cross sectional, extended knowledge, attitudes and practices (KAP) survey was conducted among 356 primary school children aged 5-17 years in February-March 2016 using a pre-tested questionnaire. This survey was part of a baseline assessment for an integrated proof of concept study aiming towards schistosomiasis elimination on Ijinga Island. Outcomes of interest in logistic regression analysis were relevant knowledge and high intention to participate in treatment campaigns. Explanatory variables were sociodemographic information sources and elements aligned to Protection Motivation Theory (PMT). RESULTS: Only 17% of the children had relevant intestinal schistosomiasis related knowledge and very few of them knew any of the S. mansoni manifestations and complications. Factors associated with relevant schistosomiasis knowledge were previous diagnosis of schistosomiasis (aOR = 2.43, 95%CI: 1.1-5.6), having heard about schistosomiasis at school (aOR = 9.94, 95%CI: 5.0-19.7) and being enrolled in 6th or 7th grade (aOR = 3.94, 95%CI: 1.3-11.8). Only 40% of the children demonstrated high intention to participate in treatment campaigns. Factors associated with high intention to participate in MDA were previous diagnosis (aOR = 2.23, 95%CI: 1.1-4.7), perceived general risk of disease transmission by lake water (aOR = 1.79, 95%CI: 1.0-3.1), perceived own vulnerability of getting infected (aOR = 5.10, 95%CI: 2.1-12.6), perceived danger of the disease (aOR = 2.47, 95%CI: 1.3-4.8) and the perceived effectiveness of medicaments to cure the disease (aOR = 2.86, 95%CI: 1.4-5.7). CONCLUSIONS: The minority of the school children had high level of theoretical knowledge about schistosomiasis and a small proportion of the children demonstrated high intention to participate in mass drug administration. In general, practical knowledge on preventive measures such as taking anti-schistosomiasis drug during MDA need to be impacted in school children to increase their participation in the control program.

Integrating use of point-of-care circulating cathodic antigen rapid diagnostic tests by community health workers during mass drug administration campaigns to improve uptake of praziquantel treatment among the adult population at Kome Island, North-Western Tanzania: a cluster randomized community trial.

BACKGROUND: The major drawback of the community-based mass drug administration (MDA) approach against schistosomiasis is that treatment is offered blindly without testing for the targeted infection. This partly contributes to the low treatment coverage. One approach to overcome this limitation is to introduce a diagnostic component in the treatment approach. This will improve drug uptake and compliance to treatment. This study is conducted to assess the feasibility and acceptability of integrating point-of-care Circulating Cathodic Antigen (POC-CCA) test to community-based directed MDA in improving treatment coverage and compliance with treatment among adults. METHODS: This is a randomized control community trial in which 30 clusters were randomly assigned to either an intervention or control arm to evaluate two interventions on treatment coverage and compliance with treatment. In each cluster, 150 adult participants were enrolled. Community Health Workers (CHW) in both arms were trained on all aspects of praziquantel (PZQ) distribution and management of mild side effects. In the intervention arm, CHWs had additional training on how to use POC-CCA to diagnose intestinal schistosomiasis. In the intervention arm, participants were tested using POC-CCA test for presence of intestinal schistosomiasis and treated based on test results, while in the control arm, participants were treated with PZQ without testing. The primary outcome measure was the proportion of participants provided with PZQ between the two arms and geographical clusters. Secondary outcomes were prevalence of S. mansoni infection based on the POC-CCA test conducted by CHWs, ability of CHWs to use the POC-CCA test accurately and safely and community acceptability of the POC-CCA test results from CHWs. Both quantitative and qualitative techniques have been used to collect data at study endpoint. DISCUSSION: The study will generate evidence on the importance of integrating a diagnostic component into the community directed MDA conducted by CHWs. Findings will generate discussion on the current MDA policy and practice in Tanzania. TRIAL REGISTRATION: PACTR201804003343404 (25/4/2018).

Co-infection of Schistosoma mansoni/hepatitis C virus and their associated factors among adult individuals living in fishing villages, north-western Tanzania.

BACKGROUND: Schistosoma mansoni and Hepatitis C virus (HCV) are co-existence in sub-Saharan Africa and co-infection is common among humans population. The immunological responses characterized with Th2-immune responses for S. mansoni and Th1-immune responses for HCV are responsible for development hepatic morbidities in infected individuals. However, the co-occurrences of S. mansoni and HCV infection, their related ultrasound detectable morbidities and associated risk factors at community levels have not been examined in fishing communities, north-western Tanzania. In this context, the present study covers that gap. METHODS: A cross-sectional study was conducted among 1924 asymptomatic individuals aged 15-55 years in four fishing villages (Igombe, Igalagala, Sangabuye and Kayenze) of Northwestern Tanzania. A single stool sample was collected from each study participants and examined for S. mansoni eggs using Kato Katz technique. Hepatitis C surface antigen (HCVsAg) was determined from a finger prick blood sample using a rapid test. RESULTS: Overall, 51.8% (997/1924; 95%CI: 49.6-54.1) of the study participants were infected with S. mansoni and had a mean intensity of 223.7epg (95%; 202.4-247.1). Of the study participants, 90 (4.7%) were infected with hepatitis C virus (HCV). Overall, 2. 4% (47/1924) of the study participants were co-infected with S. mansoni and hepatitis C virus. Among the co-infected individuals, 42.6%, 70.2% and 19.1% had splenomegaly, hepatomegaly and periportal fibrosis (PPF). Factors associated with S. mansoni/HCV co-infection were being aged 26-35 years (aRR = 2.67, 95%CI: 1.03-6.93, P < 0.04), 46-55 years (aRR = 2.89, 95%CI: 1.10-7.57, P < 0.03) and having marked hepatomegaly (aRR = 2.32, 95%CI: 1.09-4.9, P < 0.03). CONCLUSION: In this setting, S. mansoni and Hepatitis C are co-endemic and a proportion of individuals were co-infected. Hepatosplenic morbidities characterized with hepatomegaly, splenomegaly, hepatosplenomegaly and PPF were observed in co-infected individuals. These results highlight the need for integrated interventions measures against parasitic and viral diseases.

Schistosoma mansoni Infection and Its Related Morbidity among Adults Living in Selected Villages of Mara Region, North-Western Tanzania: A Cross-Sectional Exploratory Study.

Schistosoma mansoni is highly endemic in Tanzania and affects all age groups at different degrees. However, its control approach does not include adult individuals who are equally at risk and infected. To justify the inclusion of adult individuals in MDA programs in Tanzania, the present study focused on determining the prevalence of S. mansoni infection and its related morbidities among adult individuals. This was a cross sectional study conducted among 412 adult individuals aged 18-89 years living in selected villages of Rorya and Butiama districts located along the shoreline of the Lake Victoria. A pretested questionnaire was used to collect socio-demographic and socio-economic information of participants. Ultrasonographic examinations were conducted for all study participants using the Niamey protocol. A single stool sample was obtained from all study participants and examined for S. mansoni using the Kato-Katz technique. The study revealed a high prevalence of S. mansoni (56.3%), and the majority of infected individuals had a light intensity of infection. Ultrasonographic findings revealed that 22.4% of adult individuals had periportal fibrosis (PPF) (grade C-F), with 18.4% having grade C and D and 4% having grade E and F. Males had the highest prevalence of PPF (31.7% vs 10.8%, P<0.001). Organomegaly was common with 28.5% and 29.6% having splenomegaly and hepatomegaly, respectively. S. mansoni infection and its related morbidities included PPF, hepatomegaly, and splenomegaly were common among adult individuals. To reduce the level of transmission of S. mansoni infection, planned mass drug administration campaigns should include adult individuals living in these villages.

Uptake of intermittent preventive treatment with sulphadoxine-pyrimethamine for malaria during pregnancy and pregnancy outcomes: a cross-sectional study in Geita district, North-Western Tanzania.

BACKGROUND: Malaria infection during pregnancy is associated with adverse outcomes in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). For this reason, the World Health Organization currently recommends intermittent preventive treatment of malaria in pregnancy (IPTp) with sulphadoxine-pyrimethamine (SP) at each scheduled antenatal care (ANC) visit. In Tanzania, the revised IPTp policy was adopted in 2013 but the level of uptake and its association with pregnancy outcomes remains unknown. METHODS: A cross-sectional study was conducted among singleton pregnant women who delivered in two selected health facilities of Geita district, northwestern Tanzania. Self-reported uptake of SP was verified using the ANC card and was recorded. Placental and peripheral blood was collected for diagnosis of malaria by microscopy and rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs). Gestational age was estimated based on last menstrual period or Ballard score. Infant birth weights were recorded within 24 hours of delivery. RESULTS: Of 431 participants, 167 (38.75%), 134 (31.09%), 104 (24.23%), and 26 (6.03%) reported taking none, one, two, and ≥ three doses of SP during pregnancy, respectively. The uptake of ≥ three doses of IPTp-SP among delivering women at Geita hospital and Katoro health centre was 9.06% and 1.2%, respectively. The overall prevalence of malaria in pregnancy by RDT, peripheral and placental smears was 19.5%, 29.7% and 37.6% respectively. The prevalence of placental parasitaemia was higher for women who delivered at Katoro Health Centre (41.57%) than those who delivered at Geita hospital (35.09%). The uptake of ≥ three doses of SP was associated with reduced odds of having placental malaria (adjusted odds ratio (AOR) = 0.31, p = 0.039) compared to < three doses. Women with placental parasitaemia were five times more likely to have delivered pre-term (AOR = 4.67, p = 0.002) and had lower mean birth weight infants than their uninfected counterparts (mean difference = 82 g, p = 0.039). CONCLUSIONS: The uptake of ≥ three doses of IPTp-SP is low in the present study area. Placental parasitaemia is prevalent and is associated with adverse birth outcomes. Receipt of ≥ three doses of IPTp-SP reduced the odds of placental parasitaemia. Thus, increased efforts towards scale-up and continuous evaluation of IPTp-SP efficacy is recommended.

Oesophageal varices, schistosomiasis, and mortality among patients admitted with haematemesis in Mwanza, Tanzania: a prospective cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Upper gastrointestinal bleeding (UGIB) is a common cause of hospital admissions worldwide. Aetiologies vary by sociodemographics and geography. Retrospective studies of endoscopies in much of Africa have documented oesophageal varices as a leading cause of UGIB. Prospective studies describing outcomes and associations with clinical factors are lacking. METHODS: We conducted a prospective cohort study at a referral hospital in Mwanza, Tanzania where schistosomiasis is endemic. Adults admitted with haematemesis underwent laboratory workup, schistosomiasis antigen testing and elective endoscopy, and were followed for two months for death or re-bleeding. We assessed predictors of endoscopic findings using logistic regression models, and determined prediction rules that maximised sensitivity and positive predictive value (PPV). RESULTS: Of 124 enrolled patients, 13 died within two months (10%); active schistosomiasis prevalence was 48%. 64/91(70%) patients had oesophageal varices. We found strong associations between varices and numerous demographic or clinical findings, permitting construction of simple, high-fidelity prediction rules for oesophageal varices applicable even in rural settings. Portal vein diameter ≥ 13 mm or water sourced from the lake yielded sensitivity, specificity, PPV and NPV >90% for oesophageal varices; presence of splenomegaly or water sourced from the lake maintained sensitivity and PPV >90%. CONCLUSIONS: Our results guide identification of patients, via ultrasound and clinical examination, likely to have varices for whom referral for endoscopy may be life-saving. Furthermore, they support empiric anti-schistosome treatment for patients with UGIB in schistosome-endemic regions. These interventions have potential to reduce UGIB-related morbidity and mortality in Africa.

Validating a questionnaire to identify women in the first trimester of pregnancy during preventive chemotherapy interventions against soil-transmitted helminths in northwestern Tanzania.

Objectives: To evaluate the performance of a questionnaire in assessing the pregnancy status of women of reproductive age during preventive chemotherapy interventions. Methods: A questionnaire (20 questions) was administered to 1217 women of reproductive age (≥18 years) from Ilemela and Buchosa districts, northwestern Tanzania. A single urine sample was collected from each of them and tested using a rapid pregnancy test for presence of pregnant. Results: Overall, 10.8% (132/1217) of the women reported to be pregnant at the specific question in the questionnaire. The rapid pregnancy test identified 15.1% (184/1217) of the women to be pregnant. In total, 86.4% (114/132) of the women who reported to be pregnant during the interview were confirmed to be pregnant using the rapid pregnant test. The question on pregnancy demonstrated an overall sensitivity of 62% and specificity of 98.3%. Conclusions: The questionnaire performance was not completely satisfactory; however, it managed to identify pregnant women in the first trimester. The question on the last date of the start of the menstrual period yield the highest sensitivity and appeared to be the key one used in combination with other questions. Further validation of these results in other countries with different cultures are recommended to fully evaluate the performance of this method.

Where will pediatric praziquantel be needed in Tanzania? Geographical variation in prevalence, and risk factors of Schistosoma mansoni in pre-school aged children in southern and north-western Tanzania.

Background: Pediatric schistosomiasis has been recognized as a public health concern in schistosomiasis endemic areas of sub-Saharan Africa, including Tanzania. However, there is limited epidemiological information relating to pediatric schistosomiasis in Tanzania. Therefore, this current focused on assessing the geographical prevalence of S. mansoni infection and its associated risk factors in pre-school children (PreSAC) in southern and north-western Tanzania. Methods: A total of 1585 PreSAC aged 1-6 years were enrolled in a cross-sectional study. A single urine and stool sample were obtained from each child and processed using point-of-care circulating cathodic (POC-CCA) antigen and Kato Katz (K-K) technique. The overall prevalence of S. mansoni infection based on K-K technique and POC-CCA test were 18.6% (95%CI:16.7-20.6) and 28.3% (95%CI:26.1-30.6), respectively. The overall geometrical mean eggs per gram of faeces was 110.38epg (95% CI:97.3-125.3). The age group 4-6 years had the highest prevalence (P < 0.01) of S. mansoni in both diagnostic tests and infection intensity (t = -2.8398, P < 0.005) using K-K technique. On multivariable analysis, only Ukerewe district was associated with S. mansoni infection based on K-K technique (aOR = 2.8 (95%CI:2.1-3.9), P < 0.001). Based on POC-CCA test, age group (4-6 years), aOR = 1.7, 95%CI:1.3-2.2, P < 0.001), Nyasa (aOR = 6.2, 95%CI:3.0-12.5, P < 0.001), Geita (aOR = 4.2, 95%CI:2.1-8.2, P < 0.001) and Ukerewe (aOR = 28.9, 95%CI:15.0-55.8, P < 0.001) districts remained independently associated with S. mansoni infection. Conclusion: Schistosoma mansoni is a public health concern among PreSAC in the study districts and its prevalence varies from one geographical setting to another. These findings strongly support the need to include pre-school aged in preventive chemotherapy.