Clinical profiles of post-load glucose subgroups and their association with glycaemic traits over time: An IMI-DIRECT study.

AIM: To examine the hypothesis that, based on their glucose curves during a seven-point oral glucose tolerance test, people at elevated type 2 diabetes risk can be divided into subgroups with different clinical profiles at baseline and different degrees of subsequent glycaemic deterioration. METHODS: We included 2126 participants at elevated type 2 diabetes risk from the Diabetes Research on Patient Stratification (IMI-DIRECT) study. Latent class trajectory analysis was used to identify subgroups from a seven-point oral glucose tolerance test at baseline and follow-up. Linear models quantified the associations between the subgroups with glycaemic traits at baseline and 18 months. RESULTS: At baseline, we identified four glucose curve subgroups, labelled in order of increasing peak levels as 1-4. Participants in Subgroups 2-4, were more likely to have higher insulin resistance (homeostatic model assessment) and a lower Matsuda index, than those in Subgroup 1. Overall, participants in Subgroups 3 and 4, had higher glycaemic trait values, with the exception of the Matsuda and insulinogenic indices. At 18 months, change in homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance was higher in Subgroup 4 (ß = 0.36, 95% CI 0.13-0.58), Subgroup 3 (ß = 0.30; 95% CI 0.10-0.50) and Subgroup 2 (ß = 0.18; 95% CI 0.04-0.32), compared to Subgroup 1. The same was observed for C-peptide and insulin. Five subgroups were identified at follow-up, and the majority of participants remained in the same subgroup or progressed to higher peak subgroups after 18 months. CONCLUSIONS: Using data from a frequently sampled oral glucose tolerance test, glucose curve patterns associated with different clinical characteristics and different rates of subsequent glycaemic deterioration can be identified.

Fat depot-specific mRNA expression of novel loci associated with waist-hip ratio.

OBJECTIVE: We hypothesized that genes within recently identified loci associated with waist-hip ratio (WHR) exhibit fat depot-specific mRNA expression, which correlates with obesity-related traits. METHODS: Adipose tissue (AT) mRNA expression of 6 genes (TBX15/WARS2, STAB1, PIGC, ZNRF3 and GRB14) within these loci showing coincident cis-expression quantitative trait loci was measured in 222 paired samples of human visceral (vis) and subcutaneous (sc) AT. The relationship of mRNA expression levels with obesity-related quantitative traits was assessed by Pearson's correlation analyses. Multivariate linear relationships were assessed by generalized linear regression models. RESULTS: Whereas only PIGC, ZNFR3 and STAB1 mRNA expression in sc AT correlated nominally with WHR (P<0.05, adjusted for age and sex), mRNA expression of all studied genes in at least one of the fat depots correlated significantly with vis and/or sc fat area (P ranging from 0.05 to 4.0 × 10(6), adjusted for age and sex). Consistently, the transcript levels of WARS, PIGC and GRB14 were nominally associated with body mass index (BMI) (P ranging from 0.02 to 9.2 × 10(5), adjusted for age and sex). Moreover, independent of sex, obesity and diabetes status, differential expression between vis and sc AT was observed for all tested genes (P<0.01). Finally, the rs10195252 T-allele was nominally associated with increased GRB14 sc mRNA expression (P=0.025 after adjusting for age, sex and BMI). CONCLUSIONS: Our data including the inter-depot variability of mRNA expression suggests that genes within the WHR-associated loci might be involved in the regulation of fat distribution.

The link between family history and risk of type 2 diabetes is not explained by anthropometric, lifestyle or genetic risk factors: the EPIC-InterAct study.

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS: Although a family history of type 2 diabetes is a strong risk factor for the disease, the factors mediating this excess risk are poorly understood. In the InterAct case-cohort study, we investigated the association between a family history of diabetes among different family members and the incidence of type 2 diabetes, as well as the extent to which genetic, anthropometric and lifestyle risk factors mediated this association. METHODS: A total of 13,869 individuals (including 6,168 incident cases of type 2 diabetes) had family history data available, and 6,887 individuals had complete data on all mediators. Country-specific Prentice-weighted Cox models were fitted within country, and HRs were combined using random effects meta-analysis. Lifestyle and anthropometric measurements were performed at baseline, and a genetic risk score comprising 35 polymorphisms associated with type 2 diabetes was created. RESULTS: A family history of type 2 diabetes was associated with a higher incidence of the condition (HR 2.72, 95% CI 2.48, 2.99). Adjustment for established risk factors including BMI and waist circumference only modestly attenuated this association (HR 2.44, 95% CI 2.03, 2.95); the genetic score alone explained only 2% of the family history-associated risk of type 2 diabetes. The greatest risk of type 2 diabetes was observed in those with a biparental history of type 2 diabetes (HR 5.14, 95% CI 3.74, 7.07) and those whose parents had been diagnosed with diabetes at a younger age (<50 years; HR 4.69, 95% CI 3.35, 6.58), an effect largely confined to a maternal family history. CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION: Prominent lifestyle, anthropometric and genetic risk factors explained only a marginal proportion of the excess risk associated with family history, highlighting the fact that family history remains a strong, independent and easily assessed risk factor for type 2 diabetes. Discovering factors that will explain the association of family history with type 2 diabetes risk will provide important insight into the aetiology of type 2 diabetes.

The genetics of type 2 diabetes and its clinical relevance.

The increasing worldwide prevalence of type 2 diabetes (T2D) motivates efforts to use genetics to define key pathways involved in disease predisposition, and thereby to improve management of the disease. Research over the past 5 years has taken the total number of genetic loci implicated in T2D susceptibility beyond 60, and the emphasis is now shifting to the translation of these genetic insights into clinical value. Clinical translation may flow from the identification of novel therapeutic targets, but opportunities also exist with respect to individual prediction, diagnostic biomarkers and therapeutic optimization. To date, the main clinical impact has been seen for relatively rare, monogenic forms of diabetes rather than common T2D. However, the advent of high throughput sequencing approaches may herald discovery of rare and low frequency variants that offer greater translational potential.

Apolipoprotein M can discriminate HNF1A-MODY from Type 1 diabetes.

AIMS: Missed diagnosis of maturity-onset diabetes of the young (MODY) has led to an interest in biomarkers that enable efficient prioritization of patients for definitive molecular testing. Apolipoprotein M (apoM) was suggested as a biomarker for hepatocyte nuclear factor 1 alpha (HNF1A)-MODY because of its reduced expression in Hnf1a(-/-) mice. However, subsequent human studies examining apoM as a biomarker have yielded conflicting results. We aimed to evaluate apoM as a biomarker for HNF1A-MODY using a highly specific and sensitive ELISA. METHODS: ApoM concentration was measured in subjects with HNF1A-MODY (n = 69), Type 1 diabetes (n = 50), Type 2 diabetes (n = 120) and healthy control subjects (n = 100). The discriminative accuracy of apoM and of the apoM/HDL ratio for diabetes aetiology was evaluated. RESULTS: Mean (standard deviation) serum apoM concentration (µmol/l) was significantly lower for subjects with HNF1A-MODY [0.86 (0.29)], than for those with Type 1 diabetes [1.37 (0.26), P = 3.1 × 10(-18) ) and control subjects [1.34 (0.22), P = 7.2 × 10(-19) ). There was no significant difference in apoM concentration between subjects with HNF1A-MODY and Type 2 diabetes [0.89 (0.28), P = 0.13]. The C-statistic measure of discriminative accuracy for apoM was 0.91 for HNF1A-MODY vs. Type 1 diabetes, indicating high discriminative accuracy. The apoM/HDL ratio was significantly lower in HNF1A-MODY than other study groups. However, this ratio did not perform well in discriminating HNF1A-MODY from either Type 1 diabetes (C-statistic = 0.79) or Type 2 diabetes (C-statistic = 0.68). CONCLUSIONS: We confirm an earlier report that serum apoM levels are lower in HNF1A-MODY than in controls. Serum apoM provides good discrimination between HNF1A-MODY and Type 1 diabetes and warrants further investigation for clinical utility in diabetes diagnostics.

A gene variant near ATM is significantly associated with metformin treatment response in type 2 diabetes: a replication and meta-analysis of five cohorts.

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS: In this study we aimed to replicate the previously reported association between the glycaemic response to metformin and the SNP rs11212617 at a locus that includes the ataxia telangiectasia mutated (ATM) gene in multiple additional populations. METHODS: Incident users of metformin selected from the Diabetes Care System West-Friesland (DCS, n = 929) and the Rotterdam Study (n = 182) from the Netherlands, and the CARDS Trial (n = 254) from the UK were genotyped for rs11212617 and tested for an association with both HbA(1c) reduction and treatment success, defined as the ability to reach the treatment target of an HbA(1c) ≤ 7 % (53 mmol/mol). Finally, a meta-analysis including data from literature was performed. RESULTS: In the DCS cohort, we observed an association between rs11212617 genotype and treatment success on metformin (OR 1.27, 95% CI 1.03, 1.58, p = 0.028); in the smaller Rotterdam Study cohort, a numerically similar but non-significant trend was observed (OR 1.45, 95% CI 0.87, 2.39, p = 0.15); while in the CARDS cohort there was no significant association. In meta-analyses of these three cohorts separately or combined with the previously published cohorts, rs11212617 genotype is associated with metformin treatment success (OR 1.24, 95% CI 1.04, 1.49, p = 0.016 and OR 1.25, 95% CI 1.33, 1.38, p = 7.8 × 10(-6), respectively). CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION: A gene variant near ATM is significantly associated with metformin treatment response in type 2 diabetic patients from the Netherlands and the UK. This is the first robustly replicated common susceptibility locus found to be associated with metformin treatment response.

Impact of FTO genotypes on BMI and weight in polycystic ovary syndrome: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS: FTO gene single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) have been shown to be associated with obesity-related traits and type 2 diabetes. Several small studies have suggested a greater than expected effect of the FTO rs9939609 SNP on weight in polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). We therefore aimed to examine the impact of FTO genotype on BMI and weight in PCOS. METHODS: A systematic search of medical databases (PubMed, EMBASE and Cochrane CENTRAL) was conducted up to the end of April 2011. Seven studies describing eight distinct PCOS cohorts were retrieved; seven were genotyped for SNP rs9939609 and one for SNP rs1421085. The per allele effect on BMI and body weight increase was calculated and subjected to meta-analysis. RESULTS: A total of 2,548 women with PCOS were included in the study; 762 were TT homozygotes, 1,253 had an AT/CT genotype, and 533 were AA/CC homozygotes. Each additional copy of the effect allele (A/C) increased the BMI by a mean of 0.19 z score units (95% CI 0.13, 0.24; p = 2.26 × 10(-11)) and body weight by a mean of 0.20 z score units (95% CI 0.14, 0.26; p = 1.02 × 10(-10)). This translated into an approximately 3.3 kg/m(2) increase in BMI and an approximately 9.6 kg gain in body weight between TT and AA/CC homozygotes. The association between FTO genotypes and BMI was stronger in the cohorts with PCOS than in the general female populations from large genome-wide association studies. Deviation from an additive genetic model was observed in heavier populations. CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION: The effect of FTO SNPs on obesity-related traits in PCOS seems to be more than two times greater than the effect found in large population-based studies. This suggests an interaction between FTO and the metabolic context or polygenic background of PCOS.

A large multi-centre European study validates high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hsCRP) as a clinical biomarker for the diagnosis of diabetes subtypes.

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS: An accurate molecular diagnosis of diabetes subtype confers clinical benefits; however, many individuals with monogenic diabetes remain undiagnosed. Biomarkers could help to prioritise patients for genetic investigation. We recently demonstrated that high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hsCRP) levels are lower in UK patients with hepatocyte nuclear factor 1 alpha (HNF1A)-MODY than in other diabetes subtypes. In this large multi-centre study we aimed to assess the clinical validity of hsCRP as a diagnostic biomarker, examine the genotype-phenotype relationship and compare different hsCRP assays. METHODS: High-sensitivity CRP levels were analysed in individuals with HNF1A-MODY (n = 457), glucokinase (GCK)-MODY (n = 404), hepatocyte nuclear factor 4 alpha (HNF4A)-MODY (n = 54) and type 2 diabetes (n = 582) from seven European centres. Three common assays for hsCRP analysis were evaluated. We excluded 121 participants (8.1%) with hsCRP values >10 mg/l. The discriminative power of hsCRP with respect to diabetes aetiology was assessed by receiver operating characteristic curve-derived C-statistic. RESULTS: In all centres and irrespective of the assay method, meta-analysis confirmed significantly lower hsCRP levels in those with HNF1A-MODY than in those with other aetiologies (z score -21.8, p < 5 × 10(-105)). HNF1A-MODY cases with missense mutations had lower hsCRP levels than those with truncating mutations (0.03 vs 0.08 mg/l, p < 5 × 10(-5)). High-sensitivity CRP values between assays were strongly correlated (r (2) ≥ 0.91, p ≤ 1 × 10(-5)). Across the seven centres, the C-statistic for distinguishing HNF1A-MODY from young adult-onset type 2 diabetes ranged from 0.79 to 0.97, indicating high discriminative accuracy. CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION: In the largest study to date, we have established that hsCRP is a clinically valid biomarker for HNF1A-MODY in European populations. Given the modest costs and wide availability, hsCRP could translate rapidly into clinical practice, considerably improving diagnosis rates in monogenic diabetes.

A role for coding functional variants in HNF4A in type 2 diabetes susceptibility.

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS: Rare mutations in the gene HNF4A, encoding the transcription factor hepatocyte nuclear factor 4α (HNF-4A), account for ~5% of cases of MODY and more frequent variants in this gene may be involved in multifactorial forms of diabetes. Two low-frequency, non-synonymous variants in HNF4A (V255M, minor allele frequency [MAF] ~0.1%; T130I, MAF ~3.0%)-known to influence downstream HNF-4A target gene expression-are of interest, but previous type 2 diabetes association reports were inconclusive. We aimed to evaluate the contribution of these variants to type 2 diabetes susceptibility through large-scale association analysis. METHODS: We genotyped both variants in at least 5,745 cases and 14,756 population controls from the UK and Denmark. We also undertook an expanded association analysis that included previously reported and novel genotype data obtained in Danish, Finnish, Canadian and Swedish samples. A meta-analysis incorporating all published association studies of the T130I variant was subsequently carried out in a maximum sample size of 14,279 cases and 26,835 controls. RESULTS: We found no association between V255M and type 2 diabetes in either the initial (p = 0.28) or the expanded analysis (p = 0.44). However, T130I demonstrated a modest association with type 2 diabetes in the UK and Danish samples (additive per allele OR 1.17 [95% CI 1.08-1.28]; p = 1.5 × 10⁻4), which was strengthened in the meta-analysis (OR 1.20 [95% CI 1.10-1.30]; p = 2.1 × 10⁻5). CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION: Our data are consistent with T130I as a low-frequency variant influencing type 2 diabetes risk, but are not conclusive when judged against stringent standards for genome-wide significance. This study exemplifies the difficulties encountered in association testing of low-frequency variants.

Dorothy Hodgkin Lecture 2010. From hype to hope? A journey through the genetics of Type 2 diabetes.

Recent advances in genetic analysis have enabled researchers to perform genome-wide surveys for common DNA sequence variants associated with risk of Type 2 diabetes and related traits. Over the past 4 years, these endeavours have extended the number of proven Type 2 diabetes-susceptibility loci from a handful to the current total of over 40. Each of these loci provides an opportunity to uncover insights into the biology of glucose regulation and the pathogenesis of Type 2 diabetes, insights which should support clinical translation to identify novel ways of treating and preventing disease. Here, I describe (i) progress in identification of diabetes-susceptibility loci; (ii) biological insights that have been gained in the relatively short period since these loci were discovered; and (iii) the challenges that need to be addressed if we are to maximize the translational benefits of this research.

Sequencing PDX1 (insulin promoter factor 1) in 1788 UK individuals found 5% had a low frequency coding variant, but these variants are not associated with Type 2 diabetes.

AIM: Genome-wide association studies have identified >30 common variants associated with Type 2 diabetes (>5% minor allele frequency). These variants have small effects on individual risk and do not account for a large proportion of the heritable component of the disease. Monogenic forms of diabetes are caused by mutations that occur in <1:2000 individuals and follow strict patterns of inheritance. In contrast, the role of low frequency genetic variants (minor allele frequency 0.1-5%) in Type 2 diabetes is not known. The aim of this study was to assess the role of low frequency PDX1 (also called IPF1) variants in Type 2 diabetes. METHODS: We sequenced the coding and flanking intronic regions of PDX1 in 910 patients with Type 2 diabetes and 878 control subjects. RESULTS: We identified a total of 26 variants that occurred in 5.3% of individuals, 14 of which occurred once. Only D76N occurred in >1%. We found no difference in carrier frequency between patients (5.7%) and control subjects (5.0%) (P=0.46). There were also no differences between patients and control subjects when analyses were limited to subsets of variants. The strongest subset were those variants in the DNA binding domain where all five variants identified were only found in patients (P=0.06). CONCLUSION: Approximately 5% of UK individuals carry a PDX1 variant, but there is no evidence that these variants, either individually or cumulatively, predispose to Type 2 diabetes. Further studies will need to consider strategies to assess the role of multiple variants that occur in <1 in 1000 individuals.

Global microRNA expression profiles in insulin target tissues in a spontaneous rat model of type 2 diabetes.

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS: MicroRNAs regulate a broad range of biological mechanisms. To investigate the relationship between microRNA expression and type 2 diabetes, we compared global microRNA expression in insulin target tissues from three inbred rat strains that differ in diabetes susceptibility. METHODS: Using microarrays, we measured the expression of 283 microRNAs in adipose, liver and muscle tissue from hyperglycaemic (Goto-Kakizaki), intermediate glycaemic (Wistar Kyoto) and normoglycaemic (Brown Norway) rats (n = 5 for each strain). Expression was compared across strains and validated using quantitative RT-PCR. Furthermore, microRNA expression variation in adipose tissue was investigated in 3T3-L1 adipocytes exposed to hyperglycaemic conditions. RESULTS: We found 29 significantly differentiated microRNAs (p(adjusted) < 0.05): nine in adipose tissue, 18 in liver and two in muscle. Of these, five microRNAs had expression patterns that correlated with the strain-specific glycaemic phenotype. MiR-222 (p(adjusted) = 0.0005) and miR-27a (p(adjusted) = 0.006) were upregulated in adipose tissue; miR-195 (p(adjusted) = 0.006) and miR-103 (p(adjusted) = 0.04) were upregulated in liver; and miR-10b (p(adjusted) = 0.004) was downregulated in muscle. Exposure of 3T3-L1 adipocytes to increased glucose concentration upregulated the expression of miR-222 (p = 0.008), miR-27a (p = 0.02) and the previously reported miR-29a (p = 0.02). Predicted target genes of these differentially expressed microRNAs are involved in pathways relevant to type 2 diabetes. CONCLUSION: The expression patterns of miR-222, miR-27a, miR-195, miR-103 and miR-10b varied with hyperglycaemia, suggesting a role for these microRNAs in the pathophysiology of type 2 diabetes, as modelled by the Gyoto-Kakizaki rat. We observed similar patterns of expression of miR-222, miR-27a and miR-29a in adipocytes as a response to increased glucose levels, which supports our hypothesis that altered expression of microRNAs accompanies primary events related to the pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes.

Genetic association analysis of LARS2 with type 2 diabetes.

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS: LARS2 has been previously identified as a potential type 2 diabetes susceptibility gene through the low-frequency H324Q (rs71645922) variant (minor allele frequency [MAF] 3.0%). However, this association did not achieve genome-wide levels of significance. The aim of this study was to establish the true contribution of this variant and common variants in LARS2 (MAF > 5%) to type 2 diabetes risk. METHODS: We combined genome-wide association data (n = 10,128) from the DIAGRAM consortium with independent data derived from a tagging single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) approach in Dutch individuals (n = 999) and took forward two SNPs of interest to replication in up to 11,163 Dutch participants (rs17637703 and rs952621). In addition, because inspection of genome-wide association study data identified a cluster of low-frequency variants with evidence of type 2 diabetes association, we attempted replication of rs9825041 (a proxy for this group) and the previously identified H324Q variant in up to 35,715 participants of European descent. RESULTS: No association between the common SNPs in LARS2 and type 2 diabetes was found. Our replication studies for the two low-frequency variants, rs9825041 and H324Q, failed to confirm an association with type 2 diabetes in Dutch, Scandinavian and UK samples (OR 1.03 [95% CI 0.95-1.12], p = 0.45, n = 31,962 and OR 0.99 [0.90-1.08], p = 0.78, n = 35,715 respectively). CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION: In this study, the largest study examining the role of sequence variants in LARS2 in type 2 diabetes susceptibility, we found no evidence to support previous data indicating a role in type 2 diabetes susceptibility.

Lack of significant effects of the type 2 diabetes susceptibility loci JAZF1, CDC123/CAMK1D, NOTCH2, ADAMTS9, THADA, and TSPAN8/LGR5 on diabetes and quantitative metabolic traits.

Recently, several novel loci reaching genome-wide significance levels for type 2 diabetes (T2D) were identified through a meta-analysis of three genome-wide scans and large-scale follow-up. The aim of our study was to investigate the association of these loci with T2D and related subphenotypes in two cohorts from Germany. We performed an association study of 9 SNPs in or around JAZF1, CDC123/ CAMK1D, NOTCH2, BCL11A, ADAMTS9, VEGFA, DCD, THADA, and TSPAN8/ LGR5 with T2D and related quantitative traits (fasting insulin and glucose, indices derived from OGTT) in the isolated population of Sorbs (205 cases and 695 controls) and in a mixed German population (Leipzig) (938 subjects with and 918 without T2D). None of the variants was associated with T2D, but the meta-analysis of both cohorts revealed a modest trend of association of rs7578597 in THADA with T2D (p=0.055). Furthermore, Sorbian subjects homozygous for the rs7578597 T-allele had lower mean 30-minute plasma insulin when compared with carriers of the C-allele (p<0.05). The T-allele was also nominally associated with higher fasting plasma glucose in the Leipzig cohort (p<0.05). Although several other SNPs showed some evidence for association with T2D-related traits the effects were not replicated within our study. Associations of the T2D-risk alleles with T2D or related subphenotypes were overall very weak in the approximately 2 700 subjects studied. This is compatible with the modest effect size of these "second sweep" variants, which will require large-scale association studies on quantitative traits to clarify their role in the pathophysiology of T2D.

Is the thrifty genotype hypothesis supported by evidence based on confirmed type 2 diabetes- and obesity-susceptibility variants?

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS: According to the thrifty genotype hypothesis, the high prevalence of type 2 diabetes and obesity is a consequence of genetic variants that have undergone positive selection during historical periods of erratic food supply. The recent expansion in the number of validated type 2 diabetes- and obesity-susceptibility loci, coupled with access to empirical data, enables us to look for evidence in support (or otherwise) of the thrifty genotype hypothesis using proven loci. METHODS: We employed a range of tests to obtain complementary views of the evidence for selection: we determined whether the risk allele at associated 'index' single-nucleotide polymorphisms is derived or ancestral, calculated the integrated haplotype score (iHS) and assessed the population differentiation statistic fixation index (F (ST)) for 17 type 2 diabetes and 13 obesity loci. RESULTS: We found no evidence for significant differences for the derived/ancestral allele test. None of the studied loci showed strong evidence for selection based on the iHS score. We find a high F (ST) for rs7901695 at TCF7L2, the largest type 2 diabetes effect size found to date. CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION: Our results provide some evidence for selection at specific loci, but there are no consistent patterns of selection that provide conclusive confirmation of the thrifty genotype hypothesis. Discovery of more signals and more causal variants for type 2 diabetes and obesity is likely to allow more detailed examination of these issues.

Circulating beta-carotene levels and type 2 diabetes-cause or effect?

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS: Circulating beta-carotene levels are inversely associated with risk of type 2 diabetes, but the causal direction of this association is not certain. In this study we used a Mendelian randomisation approach to provide evidence for or against the causal role of the antioxidant vitamin beta-carotene in type 2 diabetes. METHODS: We used a common polymorphism (rs6564851) near the BCMO1 gene, which is strongly associated with circulating beta-carotene levels (p = 2 x 10(-24)), with each G allele associated with a 0.27 standard deviation increase in levels. We used data from the InCHIANTI and Uppsala Longitudinal Study of Adult Men (ULSAM) studies to estimate the association between beta-carotene levels and type 2 diabetes. We next used a triangulation approach to estimate the expected effect of rs6564851 on type 2 diabetes risk and compared this with the observed effect using data from 4549 type 2 diabetes patients and 5579 controls from the Diabetes Genetics Replication And Meta-analysis (DIAGRAM) Consortium. RESULTS: A 0.27 standard deviation increase in beta-carotene levels was associated with an OR of 0.90 (95% CI 0.86-0.95) for type 2 diabetes in the InCHIANTI study. This association was similar to that of the ULSAM study (OR 0.90 [0.84-0.97]). In contrast, there was no association between rs6564851 and type 2 diabetes (OR 0.98 [0.93-1.04], p = 0.58); this effect size was also smaller than that expected, given the known associations between rs6564851 and beta-carotene levels, and the associations between beta-carotene levels and type 2 diabetes. CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION: Our findings in this Mendelian randomisation study are in keeping with randomised controlled trials suggesting that beta-carotene is not causally protective against type 2 diabetes.

FTO gene variants are strongly associated with type 2 diabetes in South Asian Indians.

AIMS AND HYPOTHESIS: Variants of the FTO (fat mass and obesity associated) gene are associated with obesity and type 2 diabetes in white Europeans, but these associations are not consistent in Asians. A recent study in Asian Indian Sikhs showed an association with type 2 diabetes that did not seem to be mediated through BMI. We studied the association of FTO variants with type 2 diabetes and measures of obesity in South Asian Indians in Pune. METHODS: We genotyped, by sequencing, two single nucleotide polymorphisms, rs9939609 and rs7191344, in the FTO gene in 1,453 type 2 diabetes patients and 1,361 controls from Pune, Western India and a further 961 population-based individuals from Mysore, South India. RESULTS: We observed a strong association of the minor allele A at rs9939609 with type 2 diabetes (OR per allele 1.26; 95% CI 1.13-1.40; p = 3 x 10(-5)). The variant was also associated with BMI but this association appeared to be weaker (0.06 SDs; 95% CI 0.01-0.10) than the previously reported effect in Europeans (0.10 SDs; 95% CI 0.09-0.12; heterogeneity p = 0.06). Unlike in the Europeans, the association with type 2 diabetes remained significant after adjusting for BMI (OR per allele for type 2 diabetes 1.21; 95% CI 1.06-1.37; p = 4.0 x 10(-3)), and also for waist circumference and other anthropometric variables. CONCLUSIONS: Our study replicates the strong association of FTO variants with type 2 diabetes and similar to the study in North Indians Sikhs, shows that this association may not be entirely mediated through BMI. This could imply underlying differences between Indians and Europeans in the mechanisms linking body size with type 2 diabetes.

Gene variants influencing measures of inflammation or predisposing to autoimmune and inflammatory diseases are not associated with the risk of type 2 diabetes.

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS: There are strong associations between measures of inflammation and type 2 diabetes, but the causal directions of these associations are not known. We tested the hypothesis that common gene variants known to alter circulating levels of inflammatory proteins, or known to alter autoimmune-related disease risk, influence type 2 diabetes risk. METHODS: We selected 46 variants: (1) eight variants known to alter circulating levels of inflammatory proteins, including those in the IL18, IL1RN, IL6R, MIF, PAI1 (also known as SERPINE1) and CRP genes; and (2) 38 variants known to predispose to autoimmune diseases, including type 1 diabetes. We tested the associations of these variants with type 2 diabetes using a meta-analysis of 4,107 cases and 5,187 controls from the Wellcome Trust Case Control Consortium, the Diabetes Genetics Initiative, and the Finland-United States Investigation of NIDDM studies. We followed up associated variants (p < 0.01) in a further set of 3,125 cases and 3,596 controls from the UK. RESULTS: We found no evidence that inflammatory or autoimmune disease variants are associated with type 2 diabetes (at p

Fecundability and spontaneous abortions in women with self-reported oligo-amenorrhea and/or hirsutism: Northern Finland Birth Cohort 1966 Study.

BACKGROUND: Women with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) suffer from anovulatory infertility and hospital-based studies suggest that they have an increased risk of spontaneous abortion. Our aim was to investigate the proportion of women, with self-reported oligo-amenorrhea and/or hirsutism in a general population, who had suffered from infertility, the percentage of them managing to conceive and their rate of spontaneous abortion. METHODS: At age 31, a postal questionnaire including questions about hirsutism and oligo-amenorrhea was sent to all women from the population-based Northern Finland Birth Cohort 1966 (total n = 5889). Of these, 4535 (79.5%) answered the questionnaire, 1103 reported hirsutism and/or oligo/amenorrhea (symptomatic women) and 3420 were non-symptomatic. The fecundability ratio (FR) was defined as the probability of conception of a clinically detectable pregnancy within 12 months. RESULTS: The overall pregnancy (77.7% versus 75.6%) and spontaneous abortion (19.3% versus 18.6%) rates did not differ between the two groups and the risk of spontaneous abortion was not associated with body mass index (BMI), waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) or waist circumference. Symptomatic women had suffered more often from infertility than non-symptomatic women (19.4% versus 11.1%, P < 0.01). Oligo-amenorrhea and/or hirsutism (FR = 0.74, P < 0.001) and obesity (FR = 0.68, P = 0.002) were both independently associated with decreased fecundability, but symptomatic women had become pregnant and had one or two successful deliveries as often as non-symptomatic women. CONCLUSIONS: Women with self-reported oligo-amenorrhea and/or hirsutism had lower fecundability and suffered more often from infertility, but had at least one delivery as often as non-symptomatic women, and did not exhibit an increased risk of spontaneous abortion.

Genetics: how the UKPDS contributed to determining the genetic landscape of Type 2 diabetes.

The identification and functional characterisation of genetic variants that either cause or predispose to diabetes is a major focus of biomedical research. The molecular basis is now known for the majority of monogenic forms of diabetes arising from pancreatic beta-cell dysfunction; however finding the genetic variants underlying susceptibility to Type 2 diabetes (T2DM) has been a greater technical, statistical and biological challenge. The advent of biology-agnostic approaches made possible by the improved arsenal of research platforms and genetic tools available has increased the number of known T2DM genes dramatically and provided important insights into the pathophysiology of T2DM. Over the past 18 months, the list of T2DM susceptibility genes has grown from three to close to 20, illustrating the substantial progress which has been made. These recent milestones have not only illustrated the limited knowledge we have of the pancreatic beta-cell, but have also reinforced our belief in the involvement of common genetic variants in the genes involved in monogenic forms of diabetes in the susceptibility to T2DM and have clearly shown a primary role for pancreatic beta-cell dysfunction in T2DM. Both of these concepts were explored in the early work of the UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) genetics research groups.