A smartphone pupillometry tool for detection of acute large vessel occlusion.

OBJECTIVES: Pupillary light reflex (PLR) parameters can be used as quantitative biomarkers of neurological function. Since digital infrared pupillometry is expensive, we sought to examine alterations in PLR parameters using a smartphone quantitative pupillometry platform in subjects with acute ischemic stroke (AIS). MATERIALS AND METHODS: Patients were enrolled if they presented to the emergency department as a stroke code activation and had evidence of a large vessel occlusion (LVO) on computed tomography angiography. Controls were enrolled from hospital staff. A smartphone pupillometer was used in AIS patients with LVO pre-mechanical thrombectomy, immediately post-thrombectomy, and at 24 h post-thrombectomy. Clinical and demographic data were collected, along with the proprietary Neurological Pupil index (NPi) score from the NPi-200 digital infrared pupillometer. PLR parameters were compared using mean differences. The absolute and non-absolute inter-eye difference in each parameter for each subject were also analyzed by measuring 1 - (R:L) to determine alteration in the equilibrium between subject pupils. The NPi was analyzed for mean differences between cohorts. RESULTS: Healthy controls (n = 132) and AIS patients (n = 31) were enrolled. Significant differences were observed in PLR parameters for healthy subjects when compared to pre-thrombectomy subjects in both mean and absolute inter-eye differences after post hoc Bonferroni correction. The proprietary NPi score was not significantly different for all groups and comparisons. CONCLUSIONS: Significant alterations in the PLR were observed in AIS patients with LVO before thrombectomy, indicating the potential use of smartphone pupillometry for detection of LVO.

Spontaneous bilateral orbital subperiosteal hemorrhage resulting from thoracoabdominal crush injury.

Orbital subperiosteal hemorrhage in the absence of facial fractures is uncommon. We report an unusual case of spontaneous bilateral orbital subperiosteal hemorrhage from a thoracoabdominal crush injury. To our knowledge, this is the second case report of this entity occurring in the setting of thoracic compression. Recognition and management of orbital subperiosteal hemorrhage is important to prevent optic nerve compromise and blindness.

Comparison of full-endoscopic and minimally invasive decompression for lumbar spinal stenosis in the setting of degenerative scoliosis and spondylolisthesis.

OBJECTIVEThe management of lumbar spinal stenosis (LSS) with concurrent scoliosis and/or spondylolisthesis remains controversial. Full-endoscopic unilateral laminotomy for bilateral decompression (ULBD) facilitates neural decompression while preserving stabilizing osseoligamentous structures and may be uniquely suited for the treatment of LSS with concurrent mild to moderate degenerative deformity. The safety and efficacy of full-endoscopic versus minimally invasive surgery (MIS) ULBD in this patient population is studied here for the first time.METHODSA retrospective analysis of prospectively collected data was conducted on 45 consecutive LSS patients with concurrent scoliosis (≥ 10° coronal Cobb angle) and/or spondylolisthesis (≥ 3 mm). Patient demographics, operative details, complications, and imaging characteristics were reviewed. Outcomes were quantified using back and leg visual analog scale (VAS) scores and the Oswestry Disability Index (ODI) at 2 weeks, 3 months, and 1 year.RESULTSA total of 26 patients underwent full-endoscopic and 19 underwent MIS-ULBD with an average follow-up period of 12 months. The endoscopic cohort experienced a significantly shorter hospital length of stay (p = 0.014) and fewer adverse events (p = 0.010). Both cohorts experienced significant improvements in VAS and ODI scores at all time points (p < 0.001), but the endoscopic cohort demonstrated significantly better early ODI scores (p = 0.024).CONCLUSIONSEndoscopic and MIS-ULBD result in similar functional outcomes for LSS with mild to moderate deformity, while the endoscopic approach demonstrates a favorable rate of complications. Further studies are required to better delineate the characteristics of spinal deformities amenable to this approach and the durability of functional results.

Early experience with endoscopic revision of lumbar spinal fusions.

Approximately half a million spinal fusion procedures are performed annually in the US. It is estimated that up to one-third of arthrodesis constructs require revision surgeries. In this study the authors present endoscopic treatment strategies targeting 3 types of complications following arthrodesis surgery: 1) adjacent-level foraminal stenosis; 2) foraminal stenosis at an arthrodesis segment; and 3) stenosis caused by a displaced interbody cage. A retrospective chart review of 11 patients with a mean age of 68 ± 15 years was performed (continuous variables are shown as the mean ± SEM). All patients had a history of lumbar arthrodesis surgery and suffered from unilateral radiculopathy. Endoscopic revision surgeries were done as outpatient procedures, and there were no intraoperative or perioperative complications. The cohort included 3 patients with foraminal stenosis at the level of previous arthrodesis. They presented with unilateral radicular leg pain (visual analog scale [VAS] score: 7.3 ± 2.1) and were severely disabled, as evidenced by an Oswestry Disability Index (ODI) of 46 ± 4.9. Transforaminal endoscopic foraminotomies were performed, and at a mean follow-up time of 9.0 ± 2.5 months VAS was reduced by an average of 6.3. The cohort also includes 7 patients suffering unilateral radiculopathy due to adjacent-level foraminal stenosis. Preoperative VAS for leg pain of the symptomatic side was 6.0 ± 1.6, VAS for back pain was 5.2 ± 1.7, and ODI was 40 ± 6.33. Endoscopic decompression led to reduction of the ipsilateral leg VAS score by an average of 5, resulting in leg pain of 1 ± 0.5 at an average of 8 months of follow-up. The severity of back pain remained stable (VAS 4.2 ± 1.4). Two of these patients required revision surgery for recurrent symptoms. Finally, this study includes 1 patient who presented with weakness and pain due to retropulsion of an L5/S1 interbody spacer. The patient underwent an endoscopic interlaminar approach with partial resection of the interbody cage, which resulted in complete resolution of her radicular symptoms. Endoscopic surgery may be a useful adjunct for management of certain arthrodesis-related complications. Endoscopic foraminal decompression of previously fused segments and resection of displaced interbody cages appears to have excellent outcomes, whereas decompression of adjacent segments remains challenging and requires further investigation.

Validation of a Smartphone Pupillometry Application in Diagnosing Severe Traumatic Brain Injury.

The pupillary light reflex (PLR) is an important biomarker for the detection and management of traumatic brain injury (TBI). We investigated the performance of PupilScreen, a smartphone-based pupillometry app, in classifying healthy control subjects and subjects with severe TBI in comparison to the current gold standard NeurOptics pupillometer (NPi-200 model with proprietary Neurological Pupil Index [NPi] TBI severity score). A total of 230 PLR video recordings taken using both the PupilScreen smartphone pupillometer and NeurOptics handheld device (NPi-200) pupillometer were collected from 33 subjects with severe TBI (sTBI) and 132 subjects who were healthy without self-reported neurological disease. Severe TBI status was determined by Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) at the time of recording. The proprietary NPi score was collected from the NPi-200 pupillometer for each subject. Seven PLR curve morphological parameters were collected from the PupilScreen app for each subject. A comparison via t-test and via binary classification algorithm performance using NPi scores from the NPi-200 and PLR parameter data from the PupilScreen app was completed. This was used to determine how the frequently used NPi-200 proprietary NPi TBI severity score compares to the PupilScreen app in ability to distinguish between healthy and sTBI subjects. Binary classification models for this task were trained for the diagnosis of healthy or severe TBI using logistic regression, k-nearest neighbors, support vector machine, and random forest machine learning classification models. Overall classification accuracy, sensitivity, specificity, area under the curve, and F1 score values were calculated. Median GCS was 15 for the healthy cohort and 6 (interquartile range 2) for the severe TBI cohort. Smartphone app PLR parameters as well as NPi from the digital infrared pupillometer were significantly different between healthy and severe TBI cohorts; 33% of the study cohort had dark eye colors defined as brown eyes of varying shades. Across all classification models, the top performing PLR parameter combination for classifying subjects as healthy or sTBI for PupilScreen was maximum diameter, constriction velocity, maximum constriction velocity, and dilation velocity with accuracy, sensitivity, specificity, area under the curve (AUC), and F1 score of 87%, 85.9%, 88%, 0.869, and 0.85, respectively, in a random forest model. The proprietary NPi TBI severity score demonstrated greatest AUC value, F1 score, and sensitivity of 0.648, 0.567, and 50.9% respectively using a random forest classifier and greatest overall accuracy and specificity of 67.4% and 92.4% using a logistic regression model in the same classification task on the same dataset. The PupilScreen smartphone pupillometry app demonstrated binary healthy versus severe TBI classification ability greater than that of the NPi-200 proprietary NPi TBI severity score. These results may indicate the potential benefit of future study of this PupilScreen smartphone pupillometry application in comparison to the NPi-200 digital infrared pupillometer across the broader TBI spectrum, as well as in other neurological diseases.

Variation in Cervical Pedicle Morphology: Important Considerations for Posterior Cervical Procedures.

BACKGROUND: Safe posterior cervical spine surgery requires in-depth understanding of the surgical anatomy and common variations. The cervical pedicle attachment site to the vertebral body (VB) affects the location of exiting nerve roots and warrants preoperative evaluation. The relative site of attachment of the cervical pedicle has not been previously described. OBJECTIVE: To describe the site of the pedicle attachment to the VB in the subaxial cervical spine. METHODS: Cervical spine computed tomography scans without any structural, degenerative, or traumatic pathology as read by a board-certified neuroradiologist during 2021 were reviewed. Multiplanar reconstructions were created and cross-registered. The pedicle's attachment to the VB was measured relative to the VB height using a novel calculation system. RESULTS: Fifty computed tomography scans met inclusion criteria yielding 600 total pedicles between C3-T1 (100 per level). The average patient age was 26 ± 5.3 years, and 21/50 (42%) were female. 468/600 (78%) pedicles attached in the cranial third of the VB, 132/600 (22%) attached in the middle third, and 0 attached to the caudal third. The highest prevalence of variant anatomy occurred at C3 (36/100 C3 pedicles; 36%). CONCLUSION: In the subaxial cervical spine, pedicles frequently attach to the top third of the VB, but significant variation is observed. The rate of variation is highest at C3 and decreases linearly with caudal progression down the subaxial cervical spine to T1. This is the first report investigating this morphological phenomenon.

Spinal Ganglioneuroma.

An otherwise healthy 57-year-old man presented with intermittent low back pain and was incidentally found to have a left-sided paraspinal mass invading the spinal canal and causing spinal cord compression. He underwent a T11-12 hemilaminectomy, facetectomy, and instrumented fusion for a gross total resection with a good clinical outcome. Pathology revealed the lesion to be a ganglioneuroma. Ganglioneuroma is a rare and interesting pathology. These tumors are benign peripheral neuroblastic tumors derived from the neural crest and found along the entire neuroaxis. Tumors come to clinical attention if they cause symptomatic compression of neural structures or are found incidentally on imaging. Additionally, as these tumors share a common lineage with pheochromocytomas, systemic symptoms can be observed resulting from secretion of vasoactive peptides. The pathologic diagnosis of ganglioneuroma is predominantly based on morphology.

Microsurgical Tubular Resection of Intradural Extramedullary Spinal Tumors With 3-Dimensional-Navigated Localization.

BACKGROUND: The safety and efficacy of minimally invasive spine surgical (MISS) approaches have stimulated interest in adapting MISS principles for more complex pathology including intradural extramedullary (IDEM) tumors. No study has characterized a repeatable approach integrating the MISS surgical technique and 3-dimensional intraoperative navigated localization for the treatment of IDEM tumors. OBJECTIVE: To describe a safe and reproducible technical guide for the navigated MISS technique for the treatment of benign intradural and extradural spinal tumors. METHODS: Retrospective review of prospectively collected data on 20 patients who underwent navigated microsurgical tubular resection of intradural extramedullary tumors over a 5-year period. We review our approach to patient selection and report demographic and outcomes data for the cohort. RESULTS: Our experience demonstrates technical feasibility and safety with a 100% rate of gross total resection with no patients demonstrating recurrence during an average follow-up of 20.2 months and no instances of perioperative complications. We demonstrate favorable outcomes regarding blood loss, operative duration, and hospital length of stay. CONCLUSION: Navigated localization and microsurgical tubular resection of IDEM tumors is safe and effective. Adherence to MISS principles and thoughtful patient selection facilitate successful management of these patients.

Safety and Feasibility of DTRAX Cervical Cages in the Atlantoaxial Joint for C1/2 Stabilization.

BACKGROUND: Pathological changes in the atlantoaxial joint often lead to instability, pain, and neurological deterioration. One treatment option is the surgical stabilization of the atlantoaxial joint. In other areas of the spine, fusion rates have been improved by the introduction of an interbody cage. Our aim was to use cervical interbody spacers, originally designed to augment fusion across subaxial posterior cervical facets, to optimize the conditions for atlantoaxial fusion. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the safety and efficacy of implanting cervical cages in the atlantoaxial joint for C1/2 stabilization. METHODS: Our retrospective study evaluated patients who had undergone C1/2 cervical fusions by the Harms/Goel technique. This technique was modified by implanting a titanium cervical interbody spacer into the joint space. Mean overall pain, as measured by a 0 to 10 visual analog scale (VAS) and neurological outcomes were measured preoperatively and postoperatively. In addition, radiological outcomes were collected using follow-up imaging. RESULTS: Nine patients were included in this case series. The mean preoperative VAS for overall pain was 5.0 ± 4.0, which changed to a mean VAS of 2.0 ± 3.0 after an average follow-up period of 41.4 ± 20.4 (P = .043). All patients showed a bony fusion in our case series. None of the radiological imaging during follow-up showed screw loosening, hardware breakage, implant migration, or nonunion. CONCLUSION: The implantation of cervical titanium cages into the atlantoaxial joint in combination with posterior fixation appears to be a safe and effective method for achieving C1/2 fusion.

Single-Position Fluoroscopy-Guided Lateral Lumbar Interbody Fusion With Intraoperative Computed Tomography-Navigated Posterior Pedicle Screw Fixation: Technical Report and Literature Review.

Lateral lumbar interbody fusion (LLIF) is a powerful tool in minimally invasive spine surgery with high rates of fusion, excellent indirect decompression, and deformity correction. LLIF offers advantages compared with anterior lumbar interbody fusion including a more favorable complication profile. Traditionally, the interbody fusion is performed in the lateral position and fluoroscopy-assisted pedicle screw fixation performed with the patient repositioned prone. The evolution of both pedicle screw technology and intraoperative navigation has enhanced the feasibility of single (lateral)-position surgery. Early reports using fluoroscopy-assisted pedicle screws and computer or robotic navigation suggest this technique can be performed safely and accurately. The purpose of this brief report is to provide the technical steps, workflow, as well as pearls and pitfalls for single-position LLIF with true intraoperative computed tomography navigation-guided percutaneous pedicle screw fixation. A case example is included for illustration.

Fundamentals of Intervertebral Disc Degeneration.

Lumbar disc degeneration is one of the leading causes of chronic low back pain. The degenerative cascade is often initiated by an imbalance between catabolic and anabolic processes in the intervertebral discs. As a consequence of extracellular matrix degradation, neoinnervation and neovascularization take place. Ultimately, this degenerative process results in disc bulging and loss of nucleus pulposus and water content and subsequent loss of disc height. Most patients respond to conservative management and surgical interventions well initially, yet a significant number of patients continue to suffer from chronic low back pain. Because of the high prevalence of long-term discogenic pain, regenerative biological therapies, including gene therapies, growth factors, cellular-based injections, and tissue-engineered constructs, have attracted significant attention in light of their potential to directly address the degenerative process. Understanding the pathophysiology of degenerative disc disease is important in both refining existing technologies and developing innovative techniques to reverse the degenerative processes in the discs. In this review, we aimed to cover the underlying pathophysiology of degenerative disc disease as well as its associated risk factors and give a comprehensive summary about the developmental, structural, radiological, and biomechanical properties of human intervertebral discs.

Challenges in the Development of Biological Approaches for the Treatment of Degenerative Disc Disease.

There are numerous innovative and promising approaches aimed at slowing, reversing, or healing degenerative disc disease. However, multiple treatment-specific impediments slow progress toward realizing the benefits of these therapies. First, the exact pathophysiology underlying degenerative disc disease remains complicated and challenging to study. In addition, the study of the spine and intervertebral disc in animal models is difficult to translate to humans, hindering the utility of preclinical research. Biological treatments are subject to the complex biomechanical environment in which native discs degenerate. The regulatory approval environment for these therapeutics will likely involve a high degree of scrutiny. Finally, patient selection and assessment of outcomes are a particular challenge in this clinical setting.

Innovative Biological Treatment Methods for Degenerative Disc Disease.

Low back pain is the leading cause of work absences and years lived with disability, and it is often associated with degenerative disc disease. In recent years, biological treatment approaches such as the use of growth factors, cell injections, annulus fibrosus (AF) repair, nucleus pulposus replacement, and tissue-engineered discs have been explored as means for preventing or reversing degenerative disc disease. Both animal and clinical studies have shown promising results for cell-based therapy on the grounds of its regenerative potential. Clinical data also indicate that stem cell injection is safe when appropriately performed, albeit its long-term safety and efficacy are yet to be explored. Numerous challenges also remain to be overcome, such as isolating, differentiating, and preconditioning the disc cells, as well as managing the nutrient-deficient and oxygen-deficient micromilieu of the intervertebral disc (IVD). AF repair methods including devices used in clinical trials have shown success in decreasing reherniation rates and improving overall clinical outcomes. In addition, recent studies that combined AF repair and nucleus pulposus replacement have shown improved biomechanical stability in IVDs after the combined treatment. Tissue-engineered IVDs for total disc replacement are still being developed, and future studies are necessary to overcome the challenges in their delivery, efficacy, and safety.

Mobile Smartphone-Based Digital Pupillometry Curves in the Diagnosis of Traumatic Brain Injury.

Objective: The pupillary light reflex (PLR) and the pupillary diameter over time (the PLR curve) is an important biomarker of neurological disease, especially in the diagnosis of traumatic brain injury (TBI). We investigated whether PLR curves generated by a novel smartphone pupillometer application could be easily and accurately interpreted to aid in the diagnosis of TBI. Methods: A total of 120 PLR curves from 42 healthy subjects and six patients with TBI were generated by PupilScreen. Eleven clinician raters, including one group of physicians and one group of neurocritical care nurses, classified 48 randomly selected normal and abnormal PLR curves without prior training or instruction. Rater accuracy, sensitivity, specificity, and interrater reliability were calculated. Results: Clinician raters demonstrated 93% accuracy, 94% sensitivity, 92% specificity, 92% positive predictive value, and 93% negative predictive value in identifying normal and abnormal PLR curves. There was high within-group reliability (k = 0.85) and high interrater reliability (K = 0.75). Conclusion: The PupilScreen smartphone application-based pupillometer produced PLR curves for clinical provider interpretation that led to accurate classification of normal and abnormal PLR data. Interrater reliability was greater than previous studies of manual pupillometry. This technology may be a good alternative to the use of subjective manual penlight pupillometry or digital pupillometry.

Ten-Step 3-Dimensional-Navigated Single-Stage Lateral Surgery With Microtubular Decompression: A Case Series.

BACKGROUND: Single-stage lateral lumbar interbody fusion is a safe and effective procedure that relies on indirect decompression and fusion to treat various lumbar pathologies. This technique, however, has an overall 9% rate of indirect decompression failure, which may require additional surgery to achieve adequate direct decompression. To address this concern, we modified this technique by adding a minimally invasive, direct tubular decompression in lateral position when indicated. No study has described the technical nuances of incorporating a microtubular decompression into the single-stage lateral lumbar interbody fusion workflow (SSLLIF+). OBJECTIVE: To report on the procedural steps and clinical outcomes of the SSLLIF+. METHODS: In this retrospective case series of prospectively collected data, we present the detailed surgical approach of the SSLLIF+ with a single-center case series over a 5-year period. Surgical and clinical outcomes are presented. RESULTS: A total of 7 patients underwent a SSLLIF+ with a total of 18 levels fused and 7 levels decompressed. The SSLLIF+ was successfully performed in all cases without the occurrence of intraoperative complications in this case series. There was 1 revision after 20 months of follow-up because of adjacent segment disease. There was no need for further direct decompression in a delayed fashion. CONCLUSION: SSLLIF with direct microtubular decompression in lateral position is a safe and effective procedure in patients where indirect decompression alone may not achieve the surgical goal. Adherence to minimally invasive spine surgery principles and thoughtful patient selection facilitate the successful management of these patients while demonstrating short hospital stay and low-risk of perioperative complications.

Augmented Reality to Improve Surgical Workflow in Minimally Invasive Transforaminal Lumbar Interbody Fusion - A Feasibility Study With Case Series.

OBJECTIVE: Minimally invasive transforaminal lumbar interbody fusion (MIS-TLIF) is a highly reproducible procedure for the fusion of spinal segments. We recently introduced the concept of "total navigation" to improve workflow and eliminate fluoroscopy. Imageguided surgery incorporating augmented reality (AR) may further facilitate workflow. In this study, we developed and evaluated a protocol to integrate AR into the workflow of MISTLIF. METHODS: A case series of 10 patients was the basis for the evaluation of a protocol to facilitate tubular MIS-TLIF by the application of AR. Surgical TLIF landmarks were marked on a preoperative computed tomography (CT)-scan using dedicated software. This marked CT scan was fused intraoperatively with the low-dose navigation CT scan using elastic image fusion, and the markers were transferred to the intraoperative scan. Our experience with this workflow and the surgical outcomes were collected. RESULTS: Our AR protocol was safely implemented in all cases. The TLIF landmarks could be preoperatively planned and transferred to the intraoperative imaging. Of the 10 cases, 1 case had additionally a synovial cyst resection and in 2 cases an additional bony decompression was performed due to central stenosis. The average procedure time was 160.6 ± 31.9 minutes. The AR implementation added 1.72 ± 0.37 minutes to the overall procedure time. No complications occurred. CONCLUSION: Our findings support the idea that total navigation with AR may further facilitate the workflow, especially in cases with more complex anatomy and for teaching and training purposes. More work is needed to simplify the software and make AR integration more user-friendly.

Intraoperative contrast-enhanced ultrasound for intramedullary spinal neoplasms: patient series.

BACKGROUND: Primary intramedullary spinal tumors cause significant morbidity and death. Intraoperative ultrasound as an adjunct for localization and monitoring the extent of resection has not been systematically evaluated in these patients; the effectiveness of intraoperative contrast-enhanced ultrasound (CEUS) remains almost completely unexplored. OBSERVATIONS: A retrospective case series of patients at a single institution who had consented to the off-label use of intraoperative CEUS was identified. Seven patients with a mean age of 52.8 ± 15.8 years underwent resection of intramedullary tumors assisted by CEUS performed by a single attending neurosurgeon. Histopathological evaluation revealed 3 cases of hemangioblastoma, 1 case of pilocytic astrocytoma, 2 cases of ependymoma, and 1 case of subependymoma. Contrast enhancement correlated with gadolinium enhancement on preoperative magnetic resonance imaging. Intraoperative CEUS facilitated precise lesion localization and myelotomy planning. Dynamic CEUS studies were useful in demonstrating the blood supply to lesions with a dominant vascular pedicle. Regardless of contrast uptake, the differential enhancement between spinal cord tissue and neoplasm assisted in determining interface boundaries. LESSONS: Intraoperative CEUS constitutes a useful adjunct for the intraoperative delineation of contrast-enhancing intramedullary tumors and in vivo confirmation of gross-total resection. Systematic investigation is needed to establish the role of CEUS for resection of intramedullary spinal tumors of various pathologies.

Ten-Step Minimally Invasive Treatment of Lumbar Giant Disc Herniation via Unilateral Tubular Laminotomy for Bilateral Decompression: 2-Dimensional Operative Video.

Giant disc herniation (GDH) is generally defined as a lumbar disc herniation that obstructs 50% or more of the space in the spinal canal.1-3 Common treatment options for GDH include unilateral interlaminar approach, bilateral approach, or open full laminectomy.4,5 Surgical treatment of GDH may be challenging because severe bilateral compression of neural elements in the spinal canal increases the risk of iatrogenic injury to nerve roots and dura. The surgical approach can be further complicated by calcification, hardening, and dehydration of the GDH tissue. The prevailing opinion in the literature is that giant disc herniations cannot safely be treated via tubular minimally invasive approaches.5-7 In this video, we present a case of a 52-yr-old male patient with a history of progressive low back pain that radiates bilaterally from the buttocks toward the posterior legs and knees for 2 yr because of a GDH at the L4-5 level. The patient was treated via a tubular "over-the-top" minimally invasive decompression in order to first provide generous bilateral decompression of neural elements and dura.8,9 After sufficient decompression at the surgical level, the discectomy was performed via an ipsilateral piecemeal resection of the GDH. The "over-the-top" contralateral mobilization of disc herniation was also achieved with this approach, which facilitated the removal of the entire disc fragment. Patient consent was obtained prior to performing the procedure. Therefore, GDH should not be considered as a contraindication for tubular decompression when this modified technique is performed.

Endoscopic Spine Surgery in Athletes: Case Series and Review of Literature.

BACKGROUND: Degenerative spine disease is common in athletes and can progress to requiring surgical intervention. Traditional open surgical techniques necessitate prolonged recovery time and time away from play. Newly developed endoscopic surgical techniques may promote faster healing and recovery, and increased return to play. The goal of this paper is to summarize the current evidence in return to play after spine surgery and to present our series of 3 athletes who underwent endoscopic spine surgery. METHODS: A complete search of all PubMed indexed articles pertaining to spine surgery in athletes was conducted. This was supplemented by a 3-patient case series of our own endoscopic spine experience in athletes. RESULTS: There are no current widely accepted guidelines for return to play after spinal surgery. The best evidence available cites a return to play of 81% at 5.2-8.7 months after traditional open and minimally invasive surgery, and endoscopic surgery produces an average 88% return to play rate at 3 months. CONCLUSIONS: Although return to play can vary widely, case-based evidence as well as biomechanical principles support endoscopic spine surgery as a viable surgical modality for the treatment of spinal pathologies in athletes.

Pathomechanism and Biomechanics of Degenerative Disc Disease: Features of Healthy and Degenerated Discs.

The human intervertebral disc (IVD) is a complex organ composed of fibrous and cartilaginous connective tissues, and it serves as a boundary between 2 adjacent vertebrae. It provides a limited range of motion in the torso as well as stability during axial compression, rotation, and bending. Adult IVDs have poor innate healing potential due to low vascularity and cellularity. Degenerative disc disease (DDD) generally arises from the disruption of the homeostasis maintained by the structures of the IVD, and genetic and environmental factors can accelerate the progression of the disease. Impaired cell metabolism due to pH alteration and poor nutrition may lead to autophagy and disruption of the homeostasis within the IVD and thus plays a key role in DDD etiology. To develop regenerative therapies for degenerated discs, future studies must aim to restore both anatomical and biomechanical properties of the IVDs. The objective of this review is to give a detailed overview about anatomical, radiological, and biomechanical features of the IVDs as well as discuss the structural and functional changes that occur during the degeneration process.