Genetic and environmental influences on analogical and categorical verbal and spatial reasoning in 12-year old twins.

Research on the genetic influences on different abstract reasoning skills (fluid intelligence) and their interrelation (especially in childhood/adolescence) has been sparse. A novel cognitive test battery, the Verbal and Spatial Reasoning test for Children (VESPARCH 1), consisting of four matched (in terms of test-procedure and design) subtests assessing verbal [analogical (VA) and categorical (VC)] and spatial [analogical (SA) and categorical (SC)] reasoning, was administered to a population based sample of 12-year old twins (169 pairs). Multivariate analysis was conducted to explore the genetic relationship between the four cognitive sub-domains. Heritabilities were 0.62 (VA), 0.49 (VC), 0.52 (SA), and 0.20 (SC). Genetic influences were due to one common factor with no specific genetic influences. This shared genetic factor also explained almost the entire covariance between the domains, as environmental variance was largely specific to each subtest. The finding of no genetic influences specific to each subtest may be due to the uniquely matched design of the VESPARCH 1, reducing confoundment of different test modalities used in conventional tests. For future research or when interpreting previous studies, our findings highlight the importance of taking such potential artefacts (i.e. different test modalities for different sub-domains) into account when exploring the relationship between cognitive sub-domains.

Verbal and spatial analogical reasoning in deaf and hearing children: the role of grammar and vocabulary.

The extent to which cognitive development and abilities are dependent on language remains controversial. In this study, the analogical reasoning skills of deaf and hard of hearing children are explored. Two groups of children (deaf and hard of hearing children with either cochlear implants or hearing aids and hearing children) completed tests of verbal and spatial analogical reasoning. Their vocabulary and grammar skills were also assessed to provide a measure of language attainment. Results indicated significant differences between the deaf and hard of hearing children (regardless of type of hearing device) and their hearing peers on vocabulary, grammar, and verbal reasoning tests. Regression analyses revealed that in the group of deaf and hard of hearing children, but not in the hearing group, the language measures were significant predictors of verbal analogical reasoning, when age and spatial analogical reasoning ability were controlled for. The implications of these findings are discussed.

The association between cord pH at birth and intellectual function in childhood.

BACKGROUND: Acidemia at birth is very common but little is known about its long-term consequences. AIM: To determine if pH at birth is related to established tests of intellectual function. SUBJECTS: School children aged 6-8, for whom obstetric data were available, who had been delivered after labour at term, and had an umbilical cord arterial pH>7.00 (i.e. that was not extremely acidemic). STUDY DESIGN/OUTCOMES: Retrospective cohort study correlating birth and arterial pH data with childhood tests for non-verbal intelligence, grammar comprehension and literacy. METHODS: Relationships between pH and cognitive measures were analysed with parametric correlations. Partial correlations were used to examine these relationships, controlling for possible confounding factors. RESULTS: Arterial pH was significantly negatively correlated with literacy (p=0.001) and with non-verbal intelligence (p=0.033). CONCLUSIONS: Lower arterial pH is associated with higher scores on literacy and non-verbal intelligence tests at ages 6-8. This is unlikely to be a chance finding and is further evidence that acidemia in isolation should not be considered an adverse outcome. Further research on the relationship between labour and long-term cognitive measures is required.

Attitudes to e-learning, learning style and achievement in learning neuroanatomy by medical students.

BACKGROUND: Two main learning approaches adopted by students have been identified by research: deep (seeking for meaning motivated by interest in the subject matter) and surface (rote-learning motivated by fear of failure). There is evidence that learning approach is influenced by learning environment (e.g. Trigwell et al. 1999). Online courses pose the challenge of designing software that will encourage the more desirable approach to learning. AIMS: The aims were to evaluate how successful an online course is at encouraging deep approach to learning, which factors might influence the approach adopted towards it, and whether the approach adopted is related to academic performance. METHOD: Using 205 second-year pre-clinical medical students, we compared their approach to learning, as measured by Biggs et al. (2001) 2F-SPQ-R, for a computer-aided learning (CAL) course in Neuroanatomy with that for their studies in general. We then examined student attitudes towards the CAL course and the ratings of the course Web pages in terms of the learning approach they encourage (done by 18 independent raters). RESULTS: The students reported using significantly less deep approach to learning for the CAL course. However, their approach for the course was not related to results on a neuroanatomy assessment based on it. Enjoyment of the course, assessment of the amount of information in it as appropriate, and ease of understanding the course were all associated with a deeper approach. The only agreement between the raters of the CAL course was for some pages that included patient case studies, which were unanimously given a very high deep rating. Assessment marks for questions referring to these pages were higher than for the rest of the assessment. CONCLUSIONS: The study suggests that maximizing the use of clinical relevance should increase the interest and enjoyableness of the course and thereby aid deep learning and retention of information.

Revealing hidden talents: The development, use, and benefit of VESPARCH.

BACKGROUND: School attainment tests and Cognitive Abilities Tests are used in the United Kingdom to set targets for educational outcome. Whilst these are good predictors, they depend not only on basic ability but also on learnt knowledge and skills, such as reading. METHOD AND AIMS: VESPARCH is an online group test of verbal and spatial reasoning, which we propose gives a measure that more closely approximates to basic ability - fluid intelligence. The verbal test contains highly familiar words, does not require the child to read them, is untimed, and provides detailed feedback on five practice questions for each part of the test. The tests - one suitable and standardized for children aged 7-9 years and one for children aged 10-12 years - have good test-retest reliability and validity and conform to the Rasch model. Comparison of VESPARCH scores with school attainment measures allows identification of those students who are underachieving academically relative to their potential. The matched nature of the verbal and spatial tests allows reasoning ability in the two domains to be compared; those with much higher spatial scores might be expected to do well in STEM subjects. CONCLUSION: VESPARCH can be used alongside current school tests to ensure targeted teaching and encouragement for every child.

Teaching neuroanatomy using computer-aided learning: What makes for successful outcomes?

Computer-aided learning (CAL) is an integral part of many medical courses. The neuroscience course at Oxford University for medical students includes CAL course of neuroanatomy. CAL is particularly suited to this since neuroanatomy requires much detailed three-dimensional visualization, which can be presented on screen. The CAL course was evaluated using the concept of approach to learning. The aims of university teaching are congruent with the deep approach-seeking meaning and relating new information to previous knowledge-rather than to the surface approach of concentrating on rote learning of detail. Seven cohorts of medical students (N = 869) filled in approach to learning scale and a questionnaire investigating their engagement with the CAL course. The students' scores on CAL-course-based neuroanatomy assessment and later university examinations were obtained. Although the students reported less use of the deep approach for the neuroanatomy CAL course than for the rest of their neuroanatomy course (mean = 24.99 vs. 31.49, P < 0.001), deep approach for CAL was positively correlated with neuroanatomy assessment performance (r = 0.12, P < 0.001). Time spent on the CAL course, enjoyment of it, the amount of CAL videos watched and quizzes completed were each significantly positively related to deep approach. The relationship between deep approach and enjoyment was particularly notable (25.5% shared variance). Reported relationships between deep approach and academic performance support the desirability of deep approach in university students. It is proposed that enjoyment of the course and the deep approach could be increased by incorporation of more clinical material which is what the students liked most. Anat Sci Educ 10: 560-569. © 2017 American Association of Anatomists.