ROR2 is a novel prognostic biomarker and a potential therapeutic target in leiomyosarcoma and gastrointestinal stromal tumour.

Soft-tissue sarcomas are a group of malignant tumours whose clinical management is complicated by morphological heterogeneity, inadequate molecular markers and limited therapeutic options. Receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) have been shown to play important roles in cancer, both as therapeutic targets and as prognostic biomarkers. An initial screen of gene expression data for 48 RTKs in 148 sarcomas showed that ROR2 was expressed in a subset of leiomyosarcoma (LMS), gastrointestinal stromal tumour (GIST) and desmoid-type fibromatosis (DTF). This was further confirmed by immunohistochemistry (IHC) on 573 tissue samples from 59 sarcoma tumour types. Here we provide evidence that ROR2 expression plays a role in the invasive abilities of LMS and GIST cells in vitro. We also show that knockdown of ROR2 significantly reduces tumour mass in vivo using a xenotransplantation model of LMS. Lastly, we show that ROR2 expression, as measured by IHC, predicts poor clinical outcome in patients with LMS and GIST, although it was not independent of other clinico-pathological features in a multivariate analysis, and that ROR2 expression is maintained between primary tumours and their metastases. Together, these results show that ROR2 is a useful prognostic indicator in the clinical management of these soft-tissue sarcomas and may represent a novel therapeutic target.

Modulation of lysyl oxidase-like 2 enzymatic activity by an allosteric antibody inhibitor.

In this report, we assessed the steady-state enzymatic activity of lysyl oxidase-like 2 (LOXL2) against the substrates 1,5-diaminopentane (DAP), spermine, and fibrillar type I collagen. We find that both DAP and spermine are capable of activating LOXL2 to the same extent and have similar Michaelis constants (K(m) approximately 1 mm) and catalytic rates (k(cat) approximately 0.02 s(-1)). We also show that LOXL2 is capable of being inhibited by a known suicide inhibitor of lysyl oxidase (LOX), beta-aminopropionitrile, which we find is a potent inhibitor of LOXL2 activity. The modality of inhibition of beta-aminopropionitrile was also examined and found to be competitive with respect to the substrates DAP and spermine. In addition, we identified an antibody inhibitor (AB0023) of LOXL2 enzymatic function and have found that the inhibition occurs in a non-competitive manner with respect to both spermine and DAP. The binding epitope of AB0023 was mapped to the scavenger receptor cysteine-rich domain four of human LOXL2. AB0023 binds to a region remote from the catalytic domain making AB0023 an allosteric inhibitor of LOXL2. This affords AB0023 several advantages, because it is specific for LOXL2 and inhibits the enzymatic function of LOXL2 in a non-competitive manner thereby allowing inhibition of LOXL2 regardless of substrate concentration. These results suggest that antibody allosteric modulators of enzymatic function represent a novel drug development strategy and, in the context of LOXL2, suggest that inhibitors such as these might be useful therapeutics in oncology, fibrosis, and inflammation.

Ror2 receptor requires tyrosine kinase activity to mediate Wnt5A signaling.

The Wnts include a large family of secreted proteins that serve as important signals during embryonic development and adult homeostasis. In the most well understood Wnt signaling pathway, Wnt binding to Frizzled and low density lipoprotein receptor-related protein induces beta-catenin protein stabilization and entry into the nucleus, resulting in changes in target gene transcription. Emerging evidence suggests that Wnt5a can inhibit Wnt/beta-catenin signaling through interaction with the receptor Ror2. The Ror2 protein belongs to the receptor tyrosine kinase superfamily and contains several recognizable structural motifs. However, limited information is available regarding which specific domains are required for the inhibitory signaling activity of Wnt5a. Through mutation and deletion analysis, we have analyzed which specific domains and residues, including those necessary for tyrosine kinase activity, mediate the Wnt5a signal. To determine whether Ror2 can inhibit canonical Wnt signaling in vivo, we examined the effect of Ror2 loss on the expression of the Wnt reporter Axin2(LacZ), finding increased reporter activity in Ror2 null mice, demonstrating that Ror2 can also inhibit Wnt/beta-catenin signaling in the context of intact tissues.

Purified Wnt5a protein activates or inhibits beta-catenin-TCF signaling depending on receptor context.

The Wnts comprise a large class of secreted proteins that control essential developmental processes such as embryonic patterning, cell growth, migration, and differentiation. In the most well-understood "canonical" Wnt signaling pathway, Wnt binding to Frizzled receptors induces beta-catenin protein stabilization and entry into the nucleus, where it complexes with T-cell factor/lymphoid enhancer factor transcription factors to affect the transcription of target genes. In addition to the canonical pathway, evidence for several other Wnt signaling pathways has accumulated, in particular for Wnt5a, which has therefore been classified as a noncanonical Wnt family member. To study the alternative mechanisms by which Wnt proteins signal, we purified the Wnt5a protein to homogeneity. We find that purified Wnt5a inhibits Wnt3a protein-induced canonical Wnt signaling in a dose-dependent manner, not by influencing beta-catenin levels but by downregulating beta-catenin-induced reporter gene expression. The Wnt5a signal is mediated by the orphan tyrosine kinase Ror2, is pertussis toxin insensitive, and does not influence cellular calcium levels. We show that in addition to its inhibitory function, Wnt5a can also activate beta-catenin signaling in the presence of the appropriate Frizzled receptor, Frizzled 4. Thus, this study shows for the first time that a single Wnt ligand can initiate discrete signaling pathways through the activation of two distinct receptors. Based on these and additional observations, we propose a model wherein receptor context dictates Wnt signaling output. In this model, signaling by different Wnt family members is not intrinsically regulated by the Wnt proteins themselves but by receptor availability.

Wnt signaling during Caenorhabditis elegans embryonic development.

Wnt signaling has been demonstrated to regulate diverse cell processes throughout the development of the Caenorhabditis elegans embryo. This chapter describes methods that have been used to investigate some of these Wnt-dependent processes: endoderm specification, mitotic spindle orientation, and cell migration.

Maintenance and self-renewal of long-term reconstituting hematopoietic stem cells supported by amniotic fluid.

The maintenance and self-renewal of hematopoietic stem cells (HSC) in culture is a central focus of hematopoietic stem cell research. In vivo, the balance between HSC differentiation, apoptosis, and self-renewal is regulated at the endosteal surface niche in the bone marrow (BM). In feeder-free cultures, the fate of HSC is affected by growth factors/interleukins and serum, which affect the balance between self-renewal, differentiation, and apoptosis and lead to the rapid loss of multipotent HSC. We report that substituting human amniotic fluid (AF) for serum in HSC cultures provides a growth milieu in which HSC differentiation and apoptosis are down-regulated and multipotent HSC are maintained. Murine BM cells were cultured in serum-free medium containing 25% amniotic fluid and stem cell factor (SCF) only, "AF/SCF" cultures. Compared with serum and multiple growth factor-containing medium, cells cultured for 4 weeks in AF/SCF medium displayed downregulation of differentiation markers while maintaining a high fraction of cells expressing Sca1 (51.8%) and c-kit (10.2%). Reconstitution of lethally irradiated C57BL/6 (Ly5.2) mice with cultured Ly5.1 BM cells resulted in high levels of (cultured) donor cells in primary (78 +/- 19.4% and 94.32 +/- 2.5%, 10(5) and 10(6) cells injected, respectively) and secondary (96.5%) recipients at 8 and 11 months post-transplantation. Hence, long-term repopulation with AF/SCF cultured BM cells was maintained. Addition to the cultures of 10% serum, interleukin (IL)-3, IL-6, granulocyte colony stimulating factor (G-CSF), or granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF), singly or in combination, resulted in rapid differentiation and apoptosis, leading to the total loss of HSC.

Allosteric inhibition of lysyl oxidase-like-2 impedes the development of a pathologic microenvironment.

We have identified a new role for the matrix enzyme lysyl oxidase-like-2 (LOXL2) in the creation and maintenance of the pathologic microenvironment of cancer and fibrotic disease. Our analysis of biopsies from human tumors and fibrotic lung and liver tissues revealed an increase in LOXL2 in disease-associated stroma and limited expression in healthy tissues. Targeting LOXL2 with an inhibitory monoclonal antibody (AB0023) was efficacious in both primary and metastatic xenograft models of cancer, as well as in liver and lung fibrosis models. Inhibition of LOXL2 resulted in a marked reduction in activated fibroblasts, desmoplasia and endothelial cells, decreased production of growth factors and cytokines and decreased transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta) pathway signaling. AB0023 outperformed the small-molecule lysyl oxidase inhibitor beta-aminoproprionitrile. The efficacy and safety of LOXL2-specific AB0023 represents a new therapeutic approach with broad applicability in oncologic and fibrotic diseases.

Relative roles of TGF-beta1 and Wnt in the systemic regulation and aging of satellite cell responses.

Muscle stem (satellite) cells are relatively resistant to cell-autonomous aging. Instead, their endogenous signaling profile and regenerative capacity is strongly influenced by the aged P-Smad3, differentiated niche, and by the aged circulation. With respect to muscle fibers, we previously established that a shift from active Notch to excessive transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta) induces CDK inhibitors in satellite cells, thereby interfering with productive myogenic responses. In contrast, the systemic inhibitor of muscle repair, elevated in old sera, was suggested to be Wnt. Here, we examined the age-dependent myogenic activity of sera TGF-beta1, and its potential cross-talk with systemic Wnt. We found that sera TGF-beta1 becomes elevated within aged humans and mice, while systemic Wnt remained undetectable in these species. Wnt also failed to inhibit satellite cell myogenicity, while TGF-beta1 suppressed regenerative potential in a biphasic fashion. Intriguingly, young levels of TGF-beta1 were inhibitory and young sera suppressed myogenesis if TGF-beta1 was activated. Our data suggest that platelet-derived sera TGF-beta1 levels, or endocrine TGF-beta1 levels, do not explain the age-dependent inhibition of muscle regeneration by this cytokine. In vivo, TGF-beta neutralizing antibody, or a soluble decoy, failed to reduce systemic TGF-beta1 and rescue myogenesis in old mice. However, muscle regeneration was improved by the systemic delivery of a TGF-beta receptor kinase inhibitor, which attenuated TGF-beta signaling in skeletal muscle. Summarily, these findings argue against the endocrine path of a TGF-beta1-dependent block on muscle regeneration, identify physiological modalities of age-imposed changes in TGF-beta1, and introduce new therapeutic strategies for the broad restoration of aged organ repair.

Alternative wnt signaling is initiated by distinct receptors.

An unanswered question in the field of signal transduction research is how different signaling pathways are activated with strict specificity in a temporally and spatially controlled manner. Because extracellular ligands and membrane receptors constitute the first signaling modalities for most pathways, selectivity in ligand-receptor binding likely dictates the outcome of downstream signaling events. Unfortunately, possible complexities underlying ligand-receptor interactions are often overlooked. Here, we discuss basic principles of signal transduction initiated at the cell membrane, with the Wnt pathway, which harbors a multitude of ligands and receptors, as an example.

Chick pulmonary Wnt5a directs airway and vascular tubulogenesis.

Wnt5a is an important factor patterning many aspects of early development, including the lung. We find pulmonary non-canonical Wnt5a uses Ror2 to control patterning of both distal air and vascular tubulogenesis (alveolarization). Lungs with mis/overexpressed Wnt5a develop with severe pulmonary hypoplasia associated with altered expression patterns of Shh, L-CAM, fibronectin, VEGF and Flk1. This hypoplastic phenotype is rescued by either replacement of the Shh protein or inhibition of fibronectin function. We find that the effect of Wnt5a on vascular patterning is likely to be through fibronectin-mediated VEGF signaling. These results demonstrate the pivotal role of Wnt5a in directing the essential coordinated development of pulmonary airway and vasculature, by affecting fibronectin levels directly, and by affecting the fibronectin pattern of expression through its regulation of Shh. Data herein suggest that Wnt5a functions in mid-pulmonary patterning (during alveolarization), and is distinct from the Wnt canonical pathway which is more important in earlier lung development.

A dermal HOX transcriptional program regulates site-specific epidermal fate.

Reciprocal epithelial-mesenchymal interactions shape site-specific development of skin. Here we show that site-specific HOX expression in fibroblasts is cell-autonomous and epigenetically maintained. The distal-specific gene HOXA13 is continually required to maintain the distal-specific transcriptional program in adult fibroblasts, including expression of WNT5A, a morphogen required for distal development. The ability of distal fibroblasts to induce epidermal keratin 9, a distal-specific gene, is abrogated by depletion of HOXA13, but rescued by addition of WNT5A. Thus, maintenance of appropriate HOX transcriptional program in adult fibroblasts may serve as a source of positional memory to differentially pattern the epithelia during homeostasis and regeneration.