Three dimensional multiphoton imaging of fresh and whole mount developing mouse mammary glands.

BACKGROUND: The applications of multiphoton microscopy for deep tissue imaging in basic and clinical research are ever increasing, supplementing confocal imaging of the surface layers of cells in tissue. However, imaging living tissue is made difficult by the light scattering properties of the tissue, and this is extraordinarily apparent in the mouse mammary gland which contains a stroma filled with fat cells surrounding the ductal epithelium. Whole mount mammary glands stained with Carmine Alum are easily archived for later reference and readily viewed using bright field microscopy to observe branching architecture of the ductal network. Here, we report on the advantages of multiphoton imaging of whole mount mammary glands. Chief among them is that optical sectioning of the terminal end bud (TEB) and ductal epithelium allows the appreciation of abnormalities in structure that are very difficult to ascertain using either bright field imaging of the stained gland or the conventional approach of hematoxylin and eosin staining of fixed and paraffin-embedded sections. A second advantage is the detail afforded by second harmonic generation (SHG) in which collagen fiber orientation and abundance can be observed. METHODS: GFP-mouse mammary glands were imaged live or after whole mount preparation using a Zeiss LSM510/META/NLO multiphoton microscope with the purpose of obtaining high resolution images with 3D content, and evaluating any structural alterations induced by whole mount preparation. We describe a simple means for using a commercial confocal/ multiphoton microscope equipped with a Ti-Sapphire laser to simultaneously image Carmine Alum fluorescence and collagen fiber networks by SHG with laser excitation set to 860 nm. Identical terminal end buds (TEBs) were compared before and after fixation, staining, and whole mount preparation and structure of collagen networks and TEB morphologies were determined. Flexibility in excitation and emission filters was explored using the META detector for spectral emission scanning. Backward scattered or reflected SHG (SHG-B) was detected using a conventional confocal detector with maximum aperture and forward scattered or transmitted SHG (SHG-F) detected using a non-descanned detector. RESULTS: We show here that the developing mammary gland is encased in a thin but dense layer of collagen fibers. Sparse collagen layers are also interspersed between stromal layers of fat cells surrounding TEBs. At the margins, TEBs approach the outer collagen layer but do not penetrate it. Abnormal mammary glands from an HAI-1 transgenic FVB mouse model were found to contain TEBs with abnormal pockets of cells forming extra lumens and zones of continuous lateral bud formation interspersed with sparse collagen fibers. CONCLUSIONS: Collagen fibril arrangement and TEB structure is well preserved during the whole mount procedure and light scattering is reduced dramatically by extracting fat resulting in improved 3D structure, particularly for SHG signals originating from collagen. In addition to providing a bright signal, Carmine Alum stained whole mount slides can be imaged retrospectively such as performed for the HAI-1 mouse gland revealing new aspects of abnormal TEB morphology. These studies demonstrated the intimate contact, but relatively sparse abundance of collagen fibrils adjacent to normal and abnormal TEBS in the developing mammary gland and the ability to obtain these high resolution details subject to the discussed limitations. Our studies demonstrated that the TEB architecture is essentially unchanged after processing.

Dopamine 5 receptor mediates Ang II type 1 receptor degradation via a ubiquitin-proteasome pathway in mice and human cells.

Hypertension is a multigenic disorder in which abnormal counterregulation between dopamine and Ang II plays a role. Recent studies suggest that this counterregulation results, at least in part, from regulation of the expression of both the antihypertensive dopamine 5 receptor (D5R) and the prohypertensive Ang II type 1 receptor (AT1R). In this report, we investigated the in vivo and in vitro interaction between these GPCRs. Disruption of the gene encoding D5R in mice increased both blood pressure and AT1R protein expression, and the increase in blood pressure was reversed by AT1R blockade. Activation of D5R increased the degradation of glycosylated AT1R in proteasomes in HEK cells and human renal proximal tubule cells heterologously and endogenously expressing human AT1R and D5R. Confocal microscopy, Förster/fluorescence resonance energy transfer microscopy, and fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy revealed that activation of D5R initiated ubiquitination of the glycosylated AT1R at the plasma membrane. The regulated degradation of AT1R via a ubiquitin/proteasome pathway by activation of D5R provides what we believe to be a novel mechanism whereby blood pressure can be regulated by the interaction of 2 counterregulatory GPCRs. Our results therefore suggest that treatments for hypertension might be optimized by designing compounds that can target the AT1R and the D5R.

Progenitor/stem cells give rise to liver cancer due to aberrant TGF-beta and IL-6 signaling.

Cancer stem cells (CSCs) are critical for the initiation, propagation, and treatment resistance of multiple cancers. Yet functional interactions between specific signaling pathways in solid organ "cancer stem cells," such as those of the liver, remain elusive. We report that in regenerating human liver, two to four cells per 30,000-50,000 cells express stem cell proteins Stat3, Oct4, and Nanog, along with the prodifferentiation proteins TGF-beta-receptor type II (TBRII) and embryonic liver fodrin (ELF). Examination of human hepatocellular cancer (HCC) reveals cells that label with stem cell markers that have unexpectedly lost TBRII and ELF. elf(+/-) mice spontaneously develop HCC; expression analysis of these tumors highlighted the marked activation of the genes involved in the IL-6 signaling pathway, including IL-6 and Stat3, suggesting that HCC could arise from an IL-6-driven transformed stem cell with inactivated TGF-beta signaling. Similarly, suppression of IL-6 signaling, through the generation of mouse knockouts involving a positive regulator of IL-6, Inter-alpha-trypsin inhibitor-heavy chain-4 (ITIH4), resulted in reduction in HCC in elf(+/-) mice. This study reveals an unexpected functional link between IL-6, a major stem cell signaling pathway, and the TGF-beta signaling pathway in the modulation of mammalian HCC, a lethal cancer of the foregut. These experiments suggest an important therapeutic role for targeting IL-6 in HCCs lacking a functional TGF-beta pathway.

Modulation of the rat angiotensin type 1a receptor by an upstream short open reading frame.

The rat angiotensin type 1a receptor (AT1aR) is a peptide hormone G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) that plays a key role in electrolyte homeostasis and blood pressure control. There is a highly conserved short open reading frame (sORF) in exon 2 (E2) that is downstream from exon 1 (E1) and upstream of the AT1aR coding region located in exon 3 (E3). To determine the role of this E2 sORF in AT1aR signaling, human embryonic kidney-293 (HEK293) cells were transfected with plasmids containing AT1aR cDNA with either an intact or disrupted E2 sORF. The intact sORF attenuated the efficacy of angiotensin (Ang) II (p < 0.001) and sarcosine1,Ile4,Ile8-Ang II (SII), (p < 0.01) to activate AT1aR signaling through extracellular signal-related kinases 1/2 (ERK1/2). A time-course showed agonist-induced AT1aR-mediated ERK1/2 activation was slower in the presence of the intact compared to the disrupted sORF [Ang II: p < 0.01 and SII: p < 0.05]. Ang II-induced ERK1/2 activation was completely inhibited by the protein kinase C (PKC) inhibitor Ro 31-8220 regardless of whether the sORF was intact or disrupted. Flow cytometric analyses suggested the intact sORF improved cell survival; the percentage of live cells increased (p < 0.05) while the percentage of early apoptotic cells decreased (p < 0.01) in cells transfected with the AT1aR plasmid containing the intact sORF. These findings have implications for the regulation of AT1Rs in physiological and pathological conditions and warrant investigation of sORFs in the 5' leader sequence (5'LS) of other GPCRs.

ECM degradation assays for analyzing local cell invasion.

Proteolytic degradation of extracellular matrix (ECM) is a critical step during cell invasion and tissue transmigration that is required for many physiological and pathological processes. Cellular structures that mediate cell adhesion to, degradation of, and invasion into ECM are invadopodia of transformed and tumor cells and podosomes of normal monocytic, endothelial, and smooth muscle cells. Detecting the ability of the cell to form invadopodia and podosomes and to degrade ECM is required for studying the invasive capability of the cell. We have developed approximately 50 nm thick fluorescent gelatin matrices that provide a rapid, sensitive, and reliable in vitro system for detection of invadopodia and podosomes, and measurements of the extent of ECM degradation. In this chapter, we provide a detailed protocol for preparation of thin fluorescent gelatin matrices and for evaluation of the results from this degradation assay.

Dynamic interactions of cortactin and membrane type 1 matrix metalloproteinase at invadopodia: defining the stages of invadopodia formation and function.

Metastatic tumor cells that actively migrate and invade surrounding tissues rely on invadopodia to degrade extracellular matrix (ECM) barriers. Invadopodia are membrane protrusions that localize enzymes required for ECM degradation. Little is known about the formation, function, and regulation of invadopodia. Here, we show that invadopodia have two distinct aspects: (a) structural for organizing the cellular actin cytoskeleton to form membrane protrusions and (b) functional for using proteolytic enzyme(s) for ECM degradation. Small interfering RNA (siRNA) inhibition established that organization of invadopodia structure requires cortactin, whereas protease inhibitor studies identified membrane type 1 matrix metalloproteinase (MT1-MMP) as the key invadopodial enzyme responsible for gelatin matrix degradation in the breast carcinoma cell line MDA-MB-231. The inhibition of invadopodial structure assembly by cortactin depletion resulted in a block of matrix degradation due to failure of invadopodia formation. Either protease inhibition or MT1-MMP siRNA depletion moderately decreased the formation of invadopodial structures that were identified as actin-cortactin accumulations at the ventral cell membrane adherent to matrix. The invadopodia that were able to form upon MT1-MMP inhibition or depletion retained actin-cortactin accumulations but were unable to degrade matrix. Examination of cells at different time points as well as live-cell imaging revealed four distinct invadopodial stages: membrane cortactin aggregation at membranes adherent to matrix, MT1-MMP accumulation at the region of cortactin accumulation, matrix degradation at the invadopodia region, and subsequent cortactin dissociation from the area of continued MT1-MMP accumulation associated with foci of degraded matrix. Based on these results, we propose a stepwise model of invadopodia formation and function.

Live Cell Imaging and 3D Analysis of Angiotensin Receptor Type 1a Trafficking in Transfected Human Embryonic Kidney Cells Using Confocal Microscopy.

Live-cell imaging is used to simultaneously capture time-lapse images of angiotensin type 1a receptors (AT1aR) and intracellular compartments in transfected human embryonic kidney-293 (HEK) cells following stimulation with angiotensin II (Ang II). HEK cells are transiently transfected with plasmid DNA containing AT1aR tagged with enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP). Lysosomes are identified with a red fluorescent dye. Live-cell images are captured on a laser scanning confocal microscope after Ang II stimulation and analyzed by software in three dimensions (3D, voxels) over time. Live-cell imaging enables investigations into receptor trafficking and avoids confounds associated with fixation, and in particular, the loss or artefactual displacement of EGFP-tagged membrane receptors. Thus, as individual cells are tracked through time, the subcellular localization of receptors can be imaged and measured. Images must be acquired sufficiently rapidly to capture rapid vesicle movement. Yet, at faster imaging speeds, the number of photons collected is reduced. Compromises must also be made in the selection of imaging parameters like voxel size in order to gain imaging speed. Significant applications of live-cell imaging are to study protein trafficking, migration, proliferation, cell cycle, apoptosis, autophagy and protein-protein interaction and dynamics, to name but a few.

The Syk tyrosine kinase: a new negative regulator in tumor growth and progression.

The spleen tyrosine kinase Syk was long thought to be a hematopoietic cell-specific signaling molecule. Recent evidence demonstrated that it is also expressed by many non-hematopoietic cell types and that it plays a negative role in cancer. A significant drop in its expression was first observed during breast cancer progression, but an anomalous Syk expression has now also been evidenced in many other tumor types. Mechanistic studies using Syk re-expression demonstrated its suppressive function in tumorigenesis and metastasis formation, which is surprising for a tyrosine kinase. Loss of Syk expression is regulated, albeit not exclusively, by its promoter hypermethylation. The molecular mechanism of its tumor-suppressive function remains largely unknown; the identification of its activators and effectors in non-hematopoietic cells will be a challenge for the years to come. An increasing number of clinical studies reveal a correlation between reduced Syk expression and an increased risk for metastasis formation, and assign Syk as a potential new prognostic marker in different tumor types.

Progressive loss of Syk and abnormal proliferation in breast cancer cells.

The tumor suppressor gene Syk tyrosine kinase is absent or reduced in invasive breast cancer tissues and cell lines; its loss in breast tissues is linked to poor prognosis and metastasis. Also, evidence shows that in vitro Syk is involved in regulating proliferation. Here, we show by in situ hybridization on breast tissue sections that the loss of Syk expression is progressive during tumor development. Strikingly, Syk is already partially lost in normal epithelial tissue adjacent to the cancer lesion. In vivo, cell proliferation (as measured by the proliferative index Ki67) increased from normal to ductal carcinoma in situ to invasive, whereas Syk in situ staining in the same tissues decreased. In vitro, the presence of Syk was associated with reduced cell proliferation in an epidermal growth factor receptor-overexpressing breast cancer cell line, BT549, whereas changes in apoptosis were undetected. Concomitantly, the kinase activity of the proto-oncogene Src was reduced by approximately 30%. A 5-fold increase in abnormal mitoses was observed in the Syk-transfected cells compared with vector control. We propose that Syk is involved in the regulation of cell proliferation, possibly by controlling mechanisms of mitosis and cytokinesis via Src signal transduction pathway(s). Because of its progressive and early loss during tumor onset and development, monitoring of Syk loss in breast epithelial cells by noninvasive techniques such as ductal lavage may be a powerful tool for screening purposes.

Antimitotic activity of DY131 and the estrogen-related receptor beta 2 (ERRß2) splice variant in breast cancer.

Breast cancer remains a leading cause of cancer-related death in women, and triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) lacks clinically actionable therapeutic targets. Death in mitosis is a tumor suppressive mechanism that occurs in cancer cells experiencing a defective M phase. The orphan estrogen-related receptor beta (ERRß) is a key reprogramming factor in murine embryonic and induced pluripotent stem cells. In primates, ERRß is alternatively spliced to produce several receptor isoforms. In cellular models of glioblastoma, short form (ERRßsf) and beta2 (ERRß2) splice variants differentially regulate cell cycle progression in response to the synthetic agonist DY131, with ERRß2 driving arrest in G2/M.The goals of the present study are to determine the cellular function(s) of ligand-activated ERRß splice variants in breast cancer and evaluate the potential of DY131 to serve as an antimitotic agent, particularly in TNBC. DY131 inhibits growth in a diverse panel of breast cancer cell lines, causing cell death that involves the p38 stress kinase pathway and a bimodal cell cycle arrest. ERRß2 facilitates the block in G2/M, and DY131 delays progression from prophase to anaphase. Finally, ERRß2 localizes to centrosomes and DY131 causes mitotic spindle defects. Targeting ERRß2 may therefore be a promising therapeutic strategy in breast cancer.

Effect of estradiol on estrogen receptor-alpha gene expression and activity can be modulated by the ErbB2/PI 3-K/Akt pathway.

Epidermal growth factor (EGF), insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I), and heregulin-beta1 (HRG-beta1), can modulate the expression and activity of the estrogen receptor-alpha (ER-alpha) via the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI 3-K)/Akt pathway in the ER-alpha-positive breast cancer cell line, MCF-7. Estradiol can also rapidly activate PI 3-K/Akt in these cells (nongenomic effect). The recent study examines whether Akt is involved in the ER-alpha regulation by estradiol (genomic effect). Stable transfection of parental MCF-7 cells with a dominant-negative Akt mutant, as well as the PI 3-K inhibitors wortmannin and LY 294,002, blocked the effect of estradiol on ER-alpha expression and activity by 70-80 and 55-63%, respectively. Stable transfection of MCF-7 cells with a constitutively active Akt mimicked the effect of estradiol. The changes in ER-alpha expression and activity were abrogated in response to estradiol by an arginine to cysteine mutation in the pleckstrin homology (PH) domain of Akt (R25C), suggesting the involvement of this amino acid in the interaction between Akt and ER-alpha. Experiments employing selective ErbB inhibitors demonstrate that the effect of estradiol on ER-alpha expression and activity is mediated by ErbB2 and not by EGFR. Moreover, anchorage-dependent and -independent growth assays, cell cycle and membrane ruffling analyses showed that Akt exerts estrogen-like activity on cell growth and membrane ruffling and that a selective ErbB2 inhibitor, but not anti-ErbB2 antibodies directed to the extracellular domain, can block these effects. In the presence of constitutively active Akt, tamoxifen only partially inhibits cell growth. In contrast, in cells stably transfected with either a dominant-negative Akt or with R25C-Akt, as well as in parental cells in the presence of a selective ErbB2 inhibitor, the effect of estradiol on anchorage-dependent and -independent cell growth was inhibited by 50-75 and 100%, respectively. Dominant-negative Akt inhibited membrane ruffling by 54%; however, R25C-Akt did not have any effect, suggesting that kinase activity plays an important role in this process. Scatchard analysis demonstrated a 67% reduction in estrogen-binding capacity in cells transfected with constitutively active Akt. No change in binding affinity of estradiol to the receptor was observed upon transfection with either Akt mutant. Taken together, our results suggest that estradiol treatment results in binding to membrane ER-alpha and interaction with a heterodimer containing ErbB2, leading to tyrosine phosphorylation. This results in the activation of PI 3-K and Akt. Akt, in turn, may interact with nuclear ER-alpha, altering its expression and activity.

A novel method for monitoring functional lesion-specific recruitment of repair proteins in live cells.

DNA-protein relationships have been studied by numerous methods, but a particular gap in methodology lies in the study of DNA adduct-specific interactions with proteins in vivo, which particularly affects the field of DNA repair. Using the repair of a well-characterized and ubiquitous adduct, the abasic (AP) site, as a model, we have developed a comprehensive method of monitoring DNA lesion-specific recruitment of proteins in vivo over time. We utilized a surrogate system in which a Cy3-labeled plasmid containing a single AP-site was transfected into cells, and the interaction of the labeled DNA with BER enzymes, including APE1, Polß, LIG1, and FEN1, was monitored by immunofluorescent staining of the enzymes by Alexafluor-488-conjugated secondary antibody. The recruitment of enzymes was characterized by quantification of Cy3-Alexafluor-488 co-localization. To validate the microscopy-based method, repair of the transfected AP-site DNA was also quantified at various time points post-transfection using a real time PCR-based method. Notably, the recruitment time kinetics for each enzyme were consistent with AP-site repair time kinetics. This microscopy-based methodology is reliable in detecting the recruitment of proteins to specific DNA substrates and can be extended to study other in vivo DNA-protein relationships in any DNA sequence and in the context of any DNA structure in transfectable proliferating or quiescent cells. The method may be applied to a variety of disciplines of nucleic acid transaction pathways, including repair, replication, transcription, and recombination.

Dense fibrillar collagen is a potent inducer of invadopodia via a specific signaling network.

Cell interactions with the extracellular matrix (ECM) can regulate multiple cellular activities and the matrix itself in dynamic, bidirectional processes. One such process is local proteolytic modification of the ECM. Invadopodia of tumor cells are actin-rich proteolytic protrusions that locally degrade matrix molecules and mediate invasion. We report that a novel high-density fibrillar collagen (HDFC) matrix is a potent inducer of invadopodia, both in carcinoma cell lines and in primary human fibroblasts. In carcinoma cells, HDFC matrix induced formation of invadopodia via a specific integrin signaling pathway that did not require growth factors or even altered gene and protein expression. In contrast, phosphoproteomics identified major changes in a complex phosphosignaling network with kindlin2 serine phosphorylation as a key regulatory element. This kindlin2-dependent signal transduction network was required for efficient induction of invadopodia on dense fibrillar collagen and for local degradation of collagen. This novel phosphosignaling mechanism regulates cell surface invadopodia via kindlin2 for local proteolytic remodeling of the ECM.

SYK allelic loss and the role of Syk-regulated genes in breast cancer survival.

Heterozygotic loss of SYK, a non-receptor tyrosine kinase, gives rise to mouse mammary tumor formation where Syk protein levels are reduced by about half; loss of SYK mRNA is correlated with invasive cell behavior in in vitro models; and SYK loss has been correlated with distant metastases in patients. Here, allelic loss of the SYK gene was explored in breast ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS) using fluorescence in situ hybridization and pyrosequencing, respectively, and in infiltrating ductal carcinoma (IDC) using genomic data from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA). Allelic loss was present in a subset of DCIS cases where adjacent IDC was present. SYK copy number loss was found in about 26% of 1002 total breast cancer cases and 30% of IDC cases. Quantitative immunofluorescence revealed Syk protein to be six-fold higher in infiltrating immune cells compared with epithelial cells. This difference distorted tumor cell mRNA and protein levels in extracts. 20% of 1002 IDC cases contained elevated immune cell infiltration as estimated by elevated immune-specific mRNAs. In cases without immune cell infiltration, loss of SYK copy number was associated with a significant reduction of SYK mRNA. Here we define a 55 Gene Set consisting of Syk interacting, motility- and invasion-related genes. We found that overall survival was significantly reduced in IDC and Luminal A+B cases where copy number and mutations of these 55 genes were affected (Kaplan-Meier, Logrank test p-value 0.007141 and Logrank test p-value 0.001198, respectively). We conclude that reduction in Syk expression and contributions of genomic instability to copy number and mutations in the 55 Syk interacting genes significantly contribute to poorer overall patient survival. A closer examination of the role of Syk interacting motility and invasion genes and their prognostic and/or causative association with metastatic disease and patient outcome is warranted.

Time-lapse imaging of primary preneoplastic mammary epithelial cells derived from genetically engineered mouse models of breast cancer.

Time-lapse imaging can be used to compare behavior of cultured primary preneoplastic mammary epithelial cells derived from different genetically engineered mouse models of breast cancer. For example, time between cell divisions (cell lifetimes), apoptotic cell numbers, evolution of morphological changes, and mechanism of colony formation can be quantified and compared in cells carrying specific genetic lesions. Primary mammary epithelial cell cultures are generated from mammary glands without palpable tumor. Glands are carefully resected with clear separation from adjacent muscle, lymph nodes are removed, and single-cell suspensions of enriched mammary epithelial cells are generated by mincing mammary tissue followed by enzymatic dissociation and filtration. Single-cell suspensions are plated and placed directly under a microscope within an incubator chamber for live-cell imaging. Sixteen 650 µm x 700 µm fields in a 4x4 configuration from each well of a 6-well plate are imaged every 15 min for 5 days. Time-lapse images are examined directly to measure cellular behaviors that can include mechanism and frequency of cell colony formation within the first 24 hr of plating the cells (aggregation versus cell proliferation), incidence of apoptosis, and phasing of morphological changes. Single-cell tracking is used to generate cell fate maps for measurement of individual cell lifetimes and investigation of cell division patterns. Quantitative data are statistically analyzed to assess for significant differences in behavior correlated with specific genetic lesions.

A novel 3D fibril force assay implicates src in tumor cell force generation in collagen networks.

New insight into the biomechanics of cancer cell motility in 3D extracellular matrix (ECM) environments would significantly enhance our understanding of aggressive cancers and help identify new targets for intervention. While several methods for measuring the forces involved in cell-matrix interactions have been developed, previous to this study none have been able to measure forces in a fibrillar environment. We have developed a novel assay for simultaneously measuring cell mechanotransduction and motility in 3D fibrillar environments. The assay consists of a controlled-density fibrillar collagen gel atop a controlled-stiffness polyacrylamide (PAA) surface. Forces generated by living cells and their migration in the 3D collagen gel were measured with the 3D motion of tracer beads within the PAA layer. Here, this 3D fibril force assay is used to study the role of the invasion-associated protein kinase Src in mechanotransduction and motility. Src expression and activation are linked with proliferation, invasion, and metastasis, and have been shown to be required in 2D for invadopodia membranes to direct and mediate invasion. Breast cancer cell line MDA-MD-231 was stably transfected with GFP-tagged constitutively active Src or wild-type Src. In 3D fibrillar collagen matrices we found that, relative to wild-type Src, constitutively active Src: 1) increased the strength of cell-induced forces on the ECM, 2) did not significantly change migration speed, and 3) increased both the duration and the length, but not the number, of long membrane protrusions. Taken together, these results support the hypothesis that Src controls invasion by controlling the ability of the cell to form long lasting cellular protrusions to enable penetration through tissue barriers, in addition to its role in promoting invadopodia matrix-degrading activity.

High-throughput, quantitative analysis of acrolein-derived DNA adducts in human oral cells by immunohistochemistry.

Acrolein (Acr) is a ubiquitous environmental pollutant as well as an endogenous compound. Acrolein-derived 1,N(2)-propanodeoxyguanosines (Acr-dG) are exocyclic DNA adducts formed following exposure to cigarette smoke or from lipid peroxidation. Acr-dG is mutagenic and potentially carcinogenic and may represent a useful biomarker for the early detection of cancers related to smoking or other oxidative conditions, such as chronic inflammation. In this study, we have developed a high-throughput, automated method using a HistoRx PM-2000 imaging system combined with MetaMorph software for quantifying Acr-dG adducts in human oral cells by immunohistochemical detection using a monoclonal antibody recently developed by our laboratory. This method was validated in a cell culture system using BEAS-2B human bronchial epithelial cells treated with known concentrations of Acr. The results were further verified by quantitative analysis of Acr-dG in DNA of BEAS-2B cells using a liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry/multiple-reaction monitoring method. The automated method is a quicker, more accurate method than manual evaluation of counting cells expressing Acr-dG and quantifying fluorescence intensity. It may be applied to other antibodies that are used for immunohistochemical detection in tissues as well as cell lines, primary cultures, and other cell types.

Dynamic membrane remodeling at invadopodia differentiates invadopodia from podosomes.

Invadopodia are specialized actin-rich protrusions of metastatic tumor and transformed cells with crucial functions in ECM degradation and invasion. Although early electron microscopy studies described invadopodia as long filament-like protrusions of the cell membrane adherent to the matrix, fluorescence microscopy studies have focused on invadopodia as actin-cortactin aggregates localized to areas of ECM degradation. The absence of a clear conceptual integration of these two descriptions of invadopodial structure has impeded understanding of the regulatory mechanisms that govern invadopodia. To determine the relationship between the membrane filaments identified by electron microscopy and the actin-cortactin aggregates of invadopodia, we applied rapid live-cell high-resolution TIRF microscopy to examine cell membrane dynamics at the cortactin core of the invadopodia of human carcinoma cells. We found that cortactin docking to the cell membrane adherent to 2D fibronectin matrix initiates invadopodium assembly associated with the formation of an invadopodial membrane process that extends from a ventral cell membrane lacuna toward the ECM. The tip of the invadopodial process flattens as it interacts with the 2D matrix, and it undergoes constant rapid ruffling and dynamic formation of filament-like protrusions as the invadopodium matures. To describe this newly discovered dynamic relationship between the actin-cortactin core and invadopodial membranes, we propose a model of the invadopodial complex. Using TIRF microscopy, we also established that - in striking contrast to the invadopodium - membrane at the podosome of a macrophage fails to form any process- or filament-like membrane protrusions. Thus, the undulation and ruffling of the invadopodial membrane together with the formation of dynamic filament-like extensions from the invadopodial cortactin core defines invadopodia as invasive superstructures that are distinct from the podosomes.

Breast cancer cell movement: imaging invadopodia by TIRF and IRM microscopy.

Invadopodia are hair-like membrane protrusions projecting from the ventral side of the plasma membrane of tumor cells invading into an extracellular matrix (ECM). Formation of invadopodia and phagocytosis of partially degraded ECM is correlated with invasiveness of cancer cells. Many proteins associated with actin-rich punctae associated with invadopodia have been identified. However, the dynamic temporal and spatial relationship of invadopodia-related proteins and the mechanisms required for invadopodia formation remain largely unknown. Total Internal Reflection Fluorescence (TIRF) microscopy provides a powerful tool to directly visualize the dynamic membrane transportation of invadopodia-related, GFP-tagged proteins and to simultaneously monitor invadopodia formation by observation of localized degradation and phagocytosis of fluorescently labeled gelatin. Cell-substratum contacts can be visualized using a related technique, Interference Reflection Microscopy (IRM). In this chapter, we provide detailed methodologies to monitor the dynamic localizations of c-Src-eGFP using two-color TIRF microscopy along with IRM to simultaneously visualize translocation of c-Src-eGFP and invadopodia formation by degradation of AlexaFluor 568-labeled gelatin.

The role of the exocyst in matrix metalloproteinase secretion and actin dynamics during tumor cell invadopodia formation.

Invadopodia are actin-rich membrane protrusions formed by tumor cells that degrade the extracellular matrix for invasion. Invadopodia formation involves membrane protrusions driven by Arp2/3-mediated actin polymerization and secretion of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) at the focal degrading sites. The exocyst mediates the tethering of post-Golgi secretory vesicles at the plasma membrane for exocytosis and has recently been implicated in regulating actin dynamics during cell migration. Here, we report that the exocyst plays a pivotal role in invadopodial activity. With RNAi knockdown of the exocyst component Exo70 or Sec8, MDA-MB-231 cells expressing constitutively active c-Src failed to form invadopodia. On the other hand, overexpression of Exo70 promoted invadopodia formation. Disrupting the exocyst function by siEXO70 or siSEC8 treatment or by expression of a dominant negative fragment of Exo70 inhibited the secretion of MMPs. We have also found that the exocyst interacts with the Arp2/3 complex in cells with high invasion potential; blocking the exocyst-Arp2/3 interaction inhibited Arp2/3-mediated actin polymerization and invadopodia formation. Together, our results suggest that the exocyst plays important roles in cell invasion by mediating the secretion of MMPs at focal degrading sites and regulating Arp2/3-mediated actin dynamics.