Arteriogenesis is modulated by bradykinin receptor signaling.

RATIONALE: Positive outward remodeling of pre-existing collateral arteries into functional conductance arteries, arteriogenesis, is a major endogenous rescue mechanism to prevent cardiovascular ischemia. Collateral arterial growth is accompanied by expression of kinin precursor. However, the role of kinin signaling via the kinin receptors (B1R and B2R) in arteriogenesis is unclear. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to elucidate the functional role and mechanism of bradykinin receptor signaling in arteriogenesis. METHODS AND RESULTS: Bradykinin receptors positively affected arteriogenesis, with the contribution of B1R being more pronounced than B2R. In mice, arteriogenesis upon femoral artery occlusion was significantly reduced in B1R mutant mice as evidenced by reduced microspheres and laser Doppler flow perfusion measurements. Transplantation of wild-type bone marrow cells into irradiated B1R mutant mice restored arteriogenesis, whereas bone marrow chimeric mice generated by reconstituting wild-type mice with B1R mutant bone marrow showed reduced arteriogenesis after femoral artery occlusion. In the rat brain 3-vessel occlusion arteriogenesis model, pharmacological blockade of B1R inhibited arteriogenesis and stimulation of B1R enhanced arteriogenesis. In the rat, femoral artery ligation combined with arterial venous shunt model resulted in flow-driven arteriogenesis, and treatment with B1R antagonist R715 decreased vascular remodeling and leukocyte invasion (monocytes) into the perivascular tissue. In monocyte migration assays, in vitro B1R agonists enhanced migration of monocytes. CONCLUSIONS: Kinin receptors act as positive modulators of arteriogenesis in mice and rats. B1R can be blocked or therapeutically stimulated by B1R antagonists or agonists, respectively, involving a contribution of peripheral immune cells (monocytes) linking hemodynamic conditions with inflammatory pathways.

Granulocyte colony-stimulating factor improves cerebrovascular reserve capacity by enhancing collateral growth in the circle of Willis.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Restoration of cerebrovascular reserve capacity (CVRC) depends on the recruitment and positive outward remodeling of preexistent collaterals (arteriogenesis). With this study, we provide functional evidence that granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF) augments therapeutic arteriogenesis in two animal models of cerebral hypoperfusion. We identified an effective dosing regimen that improved CVRC and stimulated collateral growth, thereby improving the outcome after experimentally induced stroke. METHODS: We used two established animal models of (a) cerebral hypoperfusion (mouse, common carotid artery ligation) and (b) cerebral arteriogenesis (rat, 3-vessel occlusion). Following therapeutic dose determination, both models received either G-CSF, 40 µg/kg every other day, or vehicle for 1 week. Collateral vessel diameters were measured following latex angiography. Cerebrovascular reserve capacities were assessed after acetazolamide stimulation. Mice with left common carotid artery occlusion (CCAO) were additionally subjected to middle cerebral artery occlusion, and stroke volumes were assessed after triphenyltetrazolium chloride staining. Given the vital role of monocytes in arteriogenesis, we assessed (a) the influence of G-CSF on monocyte migration in vitro and (b) monocyte counts in the adventitial tissues of the growing collaterals in vivo. RESULTS: CVRC was impaired in both animal models 1 week after induction of hypoperfusion. While G-CSF, 40 µg/kg every other day, significantly augmented cerebral arteriogenesis in the rat model, 50 or 150 µg/kg every day did not show any noticeable therapeutic impact. G-CSF restored CVRC in mice (5 ± 2 to 12 ± 6%) and rats (3 ± 4 to 19 ± 12%). Vessel diameters changed accordingly: in rats, the diameters of posterior cerebral arteries (ipsilateral: 209 ± 7-271 ± 57 µm; contralateral: 208 ± 11-252 ± 28 µm) and in mice the diameter of anterior cerebral arteries (185 ± 15-222 ± 12 µm) significantly increased in the G-CSF groups compared to controls. Stroke volume in mice (10 ± 2%) was diminished following CCAO (7 ± 4%) and G-CSF treatment (4 ± 2%). G-CSF significantly increased monocyte migration in vitro and perivascular monocyte numbers in vivo. CONCLUSION: G-CSF augments cerebral collateral artery growth, increases CVRC and protects from experimentally induced ischemic stroke. When comparing three different dosing regimens, a relatively low dosage of G-CSF was most effective, indicating that the common side effects of this cytokine might be significantly reduced or possibly even avoided in this indication.

Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors stimulate cerebral arteriogenesis.

AIM: Arteriogenesis constitutes the most efficient endogenous rescue mechanism in cases of cerebral ischaemia. The aim of this work was to investigate whether angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEi) stimulates, and angiotensin II receptor type 1 blockers (ARB) inhibits cerebral collateral growth by applying a three-vessel occlusion (3-VO) model in rat. METHODS: Cerebral collateral growth was measured post 3-VO (1) by assessing blood flow using the cerebrovascular reserve capacity (CVRC) technique, and (2) by assessing vessel diameters in the posterior cerebral artery (PCA) via the evaluation of latex angiographies. A stimulatory effect on arteriogenesis was investigated for ACEi administration ± bradykinin receptor 1 (B1R) and 2 (B2R) blockers, and an inhibitory effect was analysed for ARB administration. Results were validated by immunohistochemical analysis and mechanistic data were collected by human umbilical vein endothelial cell (HUVEC) viability or scratch assay and monocyte (THP-1) migration assay. RESULTS: An inhibitory effect of ARB on arteriogenesis could not be demonstrated. However, collateral growth measurements demonstrated a significantly increased CVRC and PCA diameters in the ACEi group. ACEi stimulates cell viability and migration, which could be partially reduced by additional administration of bradykinin receptor 1 inhibitor (B1Ri). ACEi inhibits the degradation of pro-arteriogenic bradykinin derivatives, but combined ACEi + B1Ri + B1Ri (BRB) treatment did not reverse the stimulatory effect. Yet, co-administration of ACEi + BRB enhances arteriogenesis and cell migration. CONCLUSION: We demonstrate a potent stimulatory effect of ACEi on cerebral arteriogenesis in rats, presumable via B1R. However, results imply a pleiotropic and compensatory effect of ACEi on bradykinin receptor-stimulated arteriogenesis.

Knockout of Density-Enhanced Phosphatase-1 impairs cerebrovascular reserve capacity in an arteriogenesis model in mice.

Collateral growth, arteriogenesis, represents a proliferative mechanism involving endothelial cells, smooth muscle cells, and monocytes/macrophages. Here we investigated the role of Density-Enhanced Phosphatase-1 (DEP-1) in arteriogenesis in vivo, a protein-tyrosine-phosphatase that has controversially been discussed with regard to vascular cell biology. Wild-type C57BL/6 mice subjected to permanent left common carotid artery occlusion (CCAO) developed a significant diameter increase in distinct arteries of the circle of Willis, especially in the anterior cerebral artery. Analyzing the impact of loss of DEP-1 function, induction of collateralization was quantified after CCAO and hindlimb femoral artery ligation comparing wild-type and DEP-1(-/-) mice. Both cerebral collateralization assessed by latex perfusion and peripheral vessel growth in the femoral artery determined by microsphere perfusion and micro-CT analysis were not altered in DEP-1(-/-) compared to wild-type mice. Cerebrovascular reserve capacity, however, was significantly impaired in DEP-1(-/-) mice. Cerebrovascular transcriptional analysis of proarteriogenic growth factors and receptors showed specifically reduced transcripts of PDGF-B. SiRNA knockdown of DEP-1 in endothelial cells in vitro also resulted in significant PDGF-B downregulation, providing further evidence for DEP-1 in PDGF-B gene regulation. In summary, our data support the notion of DEP-1 as positive functional regulator in vascular cerebral arteriogenesis, involving differential PDGF-B gene expression.

Acetylsalicylic acid, but not clopidogrel, inhibits therapeutically induced cerebral arteriogenesis in the hypoperfused rat brain.

This study investigated the effects of acetylsalicylic acid (ASA) and clopidogrel, standardly used in the secondary prevention of vascular occlusions, on cerebral arteriogenesis in vivo and in vitro. Cerebral hypoperfusion was induced by three-vessel occlusion (3-VO) in rats, which subsequently received vehicle, ASA (6.34 mg/kg), or clopidogrel (10 mg/kg). Granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF), which enhanced monocyte migration in an additional cell culture model, augmented cerebrovascular arteriogenesis in subgroups (40 µg/kg). Cerebrovascular reactivity and vessel diameters were assessed at 7 and 21 days. Cerebrovascular reserve capacity was completely abolished after 3-VO and remained severely compromised after 7 (-14±14%) and 21 (-5±11%) days in the ASA groups in comparison with controls (4±5% and 10±10%) and clopidogrel (4±13% and 10±8%). It was still significantly decreased when ASA was combined with G-CSF (1±4%) compared with G-CSF alone (20±8%). Posterior cerebral artery diameters confirmed these data. Monocyte migration into the vessel wall, improved by G-CSF, was significantly reduced by ASA. Acetylsalicylic acid, but not clopidogrel, inhibits therapeutically augmented cerebral arteriogenesis.