Involvement of the posterior tool processing network during explicit retrieval of action tool and semantic tool knowledge: an fMRI study.

Our ability to understand how to interact with familiar objects is supported by conceptual tool knowledge. Conceptual tool knowledge includes action tool and semantic tool knowledge which are supported by the ventro-dorsal and the ventral pathways, respectively. This apparent functional segregation has been recently called into question. In a block-design fMRI study, 35 participants were asked to complete manipulation, function, and association judgment tasks about pairs of familiar objects. Our results showed that lateral occipitotemporal cortex in the ventral pathway was more sensitive to manipulation and function judgment tasks compared with association judgment tasks. Functional connectivity analyses revealed distinct coupling patterns between inferior parietal lobule, lateral occipitotemporal cortex, and fusiform gyrus. Taken together, these data indicate that action tool and semantic tool knowledge are both supported by ventral and ventro-dorsal pathways. Moreover, the explicit retrieval of these representations is supported by the functional coupling of common and distinct brain regions of the posterior tool processing network varying according to the kind of relations to be retrieved.

Visual and steering behaviours during lane departures: a longitudinal study of interactions between lane departure warning system, driving task and driving experience.

Lane Departure Warning Systems (LDWS) generate a warning in case of imminent lane departure. LDWS have proven to be effective and associated human-machine cooperation modelled. In this study, LDWS acceptance and its impact on visual and steering behaviour have been investigated over 6 weeks for novice and experienced drivers. Unprovoked lane departures were analysed along three driving tasks gradually more demanding. These observations were compared to a baseline condition without automation. The number of lane departures and their duration were dramatically reduced by LDWS, and a narrower visual spread of search during lane departure events was recorded. The findings confirmed LDWS effectiveness and suggested that these benefits are supported by visuo-attentional guidance. No specific influence of driving experience on LDWS was found, suggesting that similar cognitive processes are engaged with or without driving experience. Drivers' acceptance of LDWS lowered after automation use, but LDWS effectiveness remained stable during prolonged use.Practitioner summary: Lane Departure Warning Systems (LDWS) have been designed to prevent lane departure crashes. Here, LDWS assessment over a 6-week period showed a major drop in the number of lane departure events increasing over time. LDWS effectiveness is supported by the guidance of drivers' visual attention during lane departure events.

Comparison of Experienced and Novice Drivers' Visual and Driving Behaviors during Warned or Unwarned Near-Forward Collisions.

Forward collision warning systems (FCWSs) monitor the road ahead and warn drivers when the time to collision reaches a certain threshold. Using a driving simulator, this study compared the effects of FCWSs between novice drivers (unlicensed drivers) and experienced drivers (holding a driving license for at least four years) on near-collision events, as well as visual and driving behaviors. The experimental drives lasted about six hours spread over six consecutive weeks. Visual behaviors (e.g., mean number of fixations) and driving behaviors (e.g., braking reaction times) were collected during unprovoked near-collision events occurring during a car-following task, with (FCWS group) or without FCWS (No Automation group). FCWS presence reduced the number of near-collision events drastically and enhanced visual behaviors during those events. Unexpectedly, brake reaction times were observed to be significantly longer with FCWS, suggesting a cognitive cost associated with the warning process. Still, the FCWS showed a slight safety benefit for novice drivers attributed to the assistance provided for the situation analysis. Outside the warning events, FCWS presence also impacted car-following behaviors. Drivers took an extra safety margin, possibly to prevent incidental triggering of warnings. The data enlighten the nature of the cognitive processes associated with FCWSs. Altogether, the findings support the general efficiency of FCWSs observed through a massive reduction in the number of near-collision events and point toward the need for further investigations.

Calibration of Trust in Automated Driving: A Matter of Initial Level of Trust and Automated Driving Style?

OBJECTIVE: Automated driving is becoming a reality, and such technology raises new concerns about human-machine interaction on road. This paper aims to investigate factors influencing trust calibration and evolution over time. BACKGROUND: Numerous studies showed trust was a determinant in automation use and misuse, particularly in the automated driving context. METHOD: Sixty-one drivers participated in an experiment aiming to better understand the influence of initial level of trust (Trustful vs. Distrustful) on drivers' behaviors and trust calibration during two sessions of simulated automated driving. The automated driving style was manipulated as positive (smooth) or negative (abrupt) to investigate human-machine early interactions. Trust was assessed over time through questionnaires. Drivers' visual behaviors and take-over performances during an unplanned take-over request were also investigated. RESULTS: Results showed an increase of trust over time, for both Trustful and Distrustful drivers regardless the automated driving style. Trust was also found to fluctuate over time depending on the specific events handled by the automated vehicle. Take-over performances were not influenced by the initial level of trust nor automated driving style. CONCLUSION: Trust in automated driving increases rapidly when drivers' experience such a system. Initial level of trust seems to be crucial in further trust calibration and modulate the effect of automation performance. Long-term trust evolutions suggest that experience modify drivers' mental model about automated driving systems. APPLICATION: In the automated driving context, trust calibration is a decisive question to guide such systems' proper utilization, and road safety.

Tool acceptance and acceptability: insights from a real tool use activity.

The issue of tool adoption has been the subject of many investigations, which focus either on acceptability (evaluating intention to use, a priori) or acceptance (evaluating real tool use, a posteriori). There are many criteria in the literature explaining why a tool is accepted or rejected by users, but behavioral observations are rare. This work aims to study the relationship between acceptability and acceptance and to find out if there is a hierarchy between the criteria that lead a user to use a particular tool. We exposed participants to eight xylophones varying according to three criteria: Ease of use, Utility, and Aesthetics. We assessed acceptability and judgment of participants about xylophones with questionnaires, based on tool use observation in a video session, and after a short-term use (Experiment 1); we also measured acceptance after long-term use of five sessions during which participants learned to play xylophone (Experiment 2). The results suggested that previous exposure to the tool influenced the judgment of the user, indicating a difference between acceptability and acceptance and between observation and use of a tool. The results also indicate differences in the hierarchy of criteria. In the acceptability phase, user judgments are guided by Ease of use. However, during the acceptance phase, the Utility criterion has the greatest influence, whether in terms of tool preference, or time spent using tools.

To Watch is to Work: a Review of NeuroImaging Data on Tool Use Observation Network.

Since the discovery of mirror neurons in the 1990s, many neuroimaging studies have tackled the issue of action observation with the aim of unravelling a putative homolog human system. However, these studies do not distinguish between non-tool-use versus tool-use actions, implying that a common brain network is systematically involved in the observation of any action. Here we provide evidence for a brain network dedicated to tool-use action observation, called the tool-use observation network, mostly situated in the left hemisphere, and distinct from the non-tool-use action observation network. Areas specific for tool-use action observation are the left cytoarchitectonic area PF within the left inferior parietal lobe and the left inferior frontal gyrus. The neural correlates associated with the observation of tool-use reported here offer new insights into the neurocognitive bases of action observation and tool use, as well as addressing more fundamental issues on the origins of specifically human phenomena such as cumulative technological evolution.

Do distinct mind wandering differently disrupt drivers? Interpretation of physiological and behavioral pattern with a data triangulation method.

MW is damaging for tasks requiring sustained and divided attention, for example driving. Recent findings seem to be indicating that off-task thoughts differently disrupt drivers. The present paper delved into characteristics of off-task thoughts to assess their respective detrimental impact on driving. Twenty volunteers had to declare their MW thoughts and get intentionally involved in Problem-Solving Thoughts (PST) according to instructions. Heart rate and oculometric behavior were collected during the two sessions. Results showed that MW and PST led to a fixed gaze. MW might also led to a cognitive effort necessary to switch from task-unrelated to task-related focus. Similarities and differences between intentional and unintentional off-task thoughts were discussed in greater detail. By designing a detection algorithm, it could be possible to detect disruptive MW during risky situations while permitting the mind to wander when the driving demand is low.

Does the Tempo of Music Impact Human Behavior Behind the Wheel?

OBJECTIVE: Assess the influence of background music tempo on driving performance. BACKGROUND: Music with a fast tempo is known to increase the level of arousal, whereas the reverse is observed for slow music. The relationship between driving performance and level of arousal was expected to take the form of an inverted U-curve. METHOD: Three experiments were undertaken to manipulate the musical background during driving. In Experiment 1, the driver's preferred music track played at its original and modified (plus or minus 30%) tempo were used together with the simple ticking of a metronome. In Experiment 2, music tracks of different tempos were played during driving. In Experiment 3, music tracks were categorized as arousing or relaxing based on the associated perceived level of arousal. RESULTS: Listening to music tended to influence drivers' performances in a car-following task by improving coherence and gain adjustments relative to the followed vehicle but simultaneously shortened the intervehicular time. Although the tempo of the music per se did not directly affect driving behavior, arousing music tracks improved drivers' adjustments to the followed vehicle (Experiment 3). CONCLUSION: The tempo of the music listened to behind the wheel was not found to influence driving behaviors. However, arousing music improved drivers' responsiveness to changes in the speed of the followed vehicle. However, this benefit was canceled out by a reduction in the drivers' intervehicle safety margin. APPLICATION: Listening to arousing music while driving cannot be considered to improve road safety, at least in a car-following task without attentional impairments.

Influence of human-machine interactions and task demand on automation selection and use.

A seminal work by Sheridan and Verplank depicted 10 levels of automation, ranging from no automation to an automation that acts completely autonomously without human support. These levels of automation were later complemented with a four-stage model of human information processing. Next, human-machine cooperation centred models and associated cooperation modes were introduced. The objective of the experiment was to test which human-machine theorie describe automation use better. The participants were asked to choose repeatedly between four automation types (i.e. no automation, warning, co-action, function delegation) to complete three multi-attribute task battery tasks. The results showed that the participants favour the selection of automation types offering the best human-machine interactions quality rather that the most effective automation type. Contrary to human-machine cooperation models, technology centred models could not predict accurately automation selection. The most advanced automation was not the most selected. Practitioner Summary: The experiment dealt with how people select different automation types to complete the multi-attribute task battery that emulates recreational aircraft pilot tasks. Automation performance was not the main criteria that explain automation use, as people tend to select an automation type based on the quality of the human-machine cooperation.

Haptic modality takes its time: Dynamic of activations of sensory modalities in perceptual and memory processes.

Based on claims resulting from grounded cognition theory that perceptual and memory processes are using the same distributed systems, the present study investigated the temporal aspect of access to memory traces through haptic and auditory modalities. Unlike in the case of visual or auditory components, the perception of a vibrotactile component is more sequential in nature and therefore cannot be fully processed before the end of the signal. The present study explores the dynamic of components activation in a situation of audio-vibrotactile asynchrony. We used a short-term priming paradigm consisting of an association phase (between a vibration and sound) and a test phase testing priming effect of a vibrotactile stimulation on the processing of a target sound. Results showed an interference with a simultaneous processing and a facilitation with a sequential processing. The temporality process of perceptual components is also important at a memory level.

Involvement of the Left Supramarginal Gyrus in Manipulation Judgment Tasks: Contributions to Theories of Tool Use.

OBJECTIVES: Two theories of tool use, namely the gesture engram and the technical reasoning theories, make distinct predictions about the involvement of the left inferior parietal lobe (IPL) in manipulation judgement tasks. The objective here is to test these alternative predictions based on previous studies on manipulation judgment tasks using transcranial magnetic stimulations (TMS) targeting the left supramarginal gyrus (SMG). METHODS: We review recent TMS studies on manipulation judgement tasks and confront these data with predictions made by both tool use theories. RESULTS: The left SMG is a highly intertwined region, organized following several functionally distinct areas and TMS may have disrupted a cortical network involved in the ability to use tools rather than only one functional area supporting manipulation knowledge. Moreover, manipulation judgement tasks may be impaired following virtual lesions outside the IPL. CONCLUSIONS: These data are more in line with the technical reasoning hypothesis, which assumes that the left IPL does not store manipulation knowledge per se. (JINS, 2017, 23, 685-691).

Imitation and matching of meaningless gestures: distinct involvement from motor and visual imagery.

The aim of the present study was to understand the underlying cognitive processes of imitation and matching of meaningless gestures. Neuropsychological evidence obtained in brain damaged patients, has shown that distinct cognitive processes supported imitation and matching of meaningless gestures. Left-brain damaged (LBD) patients failed to imitate while right-brain damaged (RBD) patients failed to match meaningless gestures. Moreover, other studies with brain damaged patients showed that LBD patients were impaired in motor imagery while RBD patients were impaired in visual imagery. Thus, we hypothesize that imitation of meaningless gestures might rely on motor imagery, whereas matching of meaningless gestures might be based on visual imagery. In a first experiment, using a correlational design, we demonstrated that posture imitation relies on motor imagery but not on visual imagery (Experiment 1a) and that posture matching relies on visual imagery but not on motor imagery (Experiment 1b). In a second experiment, by manipulating directly the body posture of the participants, we demonstrated that such manipulation evokes a difference only in imitation task but not in matching task. In conclusion, the present study provides direct evidence that the way we imitate or we have to compare postures depends on motor imagery or visual imagery, respectively. Our results are discussed in the light of recent findings about underlying mechanisms of meaningful and meaningless gestures.

Automotive HMI design and participatory user involvement: review and perspectives.

Automotive human-machine interface (HMI) design is facing new challenges due to the technological advances of the last decades. The design process has to be adapted in order to address human factors and road safety challenges. It is now widely accepted that user involvement in the HMI design process is valuable. However, the current form of user involvement in industry remains at the stages of concept assessment and usability tests. Moreover, the literature in other fields (e.g. information systems) promotes a broader user involvement with participatory design (i.e. the user is fully involved in the development process). This article reviews the established benefits of participatory design and reveals perspectives for automotive HMI quality improvement in a cognitive ergonomic framework. Practitioner Summary: Automotive HMI quality determines, in part, drivers' ability to perform primary driving tasks while using in-vehicle devices. User involvement in the design process is a key point to contribute to HMI quality. This article reports the potential benefits of a broad involvement from drivers to meet automotive HMI design challenges.

The Reactivation of Motion influences Size Categorization in a Visuo-Haptic Illusion.

People simulate themselves moving when they view a picture, read a sentence, or simulate a situation that involves motion. The simulation of motion has often been studied in conceptual tasks such as language comprehension. However, most of these studies investigated the direct influence of motion simulation on tasks inducing motion. This article investigates whether a mo- tion induced by the reactivation of a dynamic picture can influence a task that did not require motion processing. In a first phase, a dynamic picture and a static picture were systematically presented with a vibrotactile stimulus (high or low frequency). The second phase of the experiment used a priming paradigm in which a vibrotactile stimulus was presented alone and followed by pictures of objects. Participants had to categorize objects as large or small relative to their typical size (simulated size). Results showed that when the target object was preceded by the vibrotactile stimulus previously associated with the dynamic picture, participants perceived all the objects as larger and categorized them more quickly when the objects were typically "large" and more slowly when the objects were typically "small." In light of embodied cognition theories, this bias in participants' perception is assumed to be caused by an induced forward motion. generated by the reactivated dynamic picture, which affects simulation of the size of the objects.

The impact of false warnings on partial and full lane departure warnings effectiveness and acceptance in car driving.

In the past, lane departure warnings (LDWs) were demonstrated to improve driving behaviours during lane departures but little is known about the effects of unreliable warnings. This experiment focused on the influence of false warnings alone or in combination with missed warnings and warning onset on assistance effectiveness and acceptance. Two assistance unreliability levels (33 and 17%) and two warning onsets (partial and full lane departure) were manipulated in order to investigate interaction. Results showed that assistance, regardless unreliability levels and warning onsets, improved driving behaviours during lane departure episodes and outside of these episodes by favouring better lane-keeping performances. Full lane departure and highly unreliable warnings, however, reduced assistance efficiency. Drivers' assistance acceptance was better for the most reliable warnings and for the subsequent warnings. The data indicate that imperfect LDWs (false warnings or false and missed warnings) further improve driving behaviours compared to no assistance. Practitioner Summary: This study revealed that imperfect lane departure warnings are able to significantly improve driving performances and that warning onset is a key element for assistance effectiveness and acceptance. The conclusion may be of particular interest for lane departure warning designers.

When Do We Use Automatic Tools Rather Than Doing a Task Manually? Influence of Automatic Tool Speed.

In our everyday lives we tend to minimize effort, by using automatic tools, for instance. But we also tend to avoid idleness by engaging in various activities. What happens when minimizing effort and avoiding idleness are concurrent? This article explores the influence of waiting time as compared with a fixed manual task completion on people's preference for waiting or doing the task. In 2 experiments, participants were asked to choose performing a manual task or waiting while an automatic tool performed the task for them. The time required by the automatic tool to complete the task was manipulated and was equal to or shorter than the time needed for manual completion. Results indicated that the faster the automatic tool (i.e., the shorter the waiting time) the more participants used it instead of doing the task manually. However, participants favored the waiting option only when the waiting time was less than half as long as doing the task manually. These results suggest that people prefer to avoid idleness rather than to minimize effort.

Effects of shrinkage of the visual field through ageing on parking performance: a parametric manipulation of salience and relevance of contextual components.

The Master Activation model of attention (Michael, Vairet, and Fernandez, Capture attentionnelle en vision: La saillance, la pertinence, et la balance cortico-sous-corticale. In: G. A. Michael (ed), Neuroscience cognitive de l'attention visuelle [Cognitive Neuroscience of Visual Attention], Solal, Marseille, pp. 165-201, 2007; Michael, Lété, and Ducrot, Trajectories of Attentional Development: An Exploration with the Master Activation Map Model, Developmental Psychology, 49:615-631, 2013) was used to study visual attention and driving behaviours of younger and older drivers while parking a car. The salience and the relevance of elements present in the parking environment were manipulated during parking manoeuvres. Different effects on manoeuvring were observed depending on driver characteristics such as age and the extent of the field of view (FV). It was found that the presence of a relevant element, such as a pedestrian, impaired parking performance only among older drivers with a narrower FV. The distinct effects of salience and relevance suggest that they had different statuses in attentional processing of manoeuvring drivers.

Exploring hazard anticipation and stress while driving in light of defensive behavior theory.

In driving, poor hazard anticipation would provide drivers less time to prepare an appropriate response, increasing the urgency of the situation and generating more stress. Assuming this, the current study seeks to determine whether a predictable road hazard triggers hazard anticipation in drivers that can mitigate the ensuing stress response, and whether the stress response is influenced by driving experience. In a simulated road environment, a cue was used to trigger hazard anticipation, and a road hazard to induce a stress response. Heart rate, pupil diameter, driving speed, subjective stress, arousal, and negative emotions, were retrieved from 36 drivers who all faced the cue followed by the hazard (i.e. a predictable hazard), the cue only, and the hazard only. In the light of work on defensive behaviors, the findings indicate that a predictable hazard triggers hazard anticipation detectable via (1) freezing behavior-characterized by cardiac deceleration-(2) anticipatory pupil dilation and (3) anticipatory speed deceleration. The results also point to a beneficial role for hazard anticipation in reducing driver stress, as evidenced by reductions in peak heart rate levels, as well as in reported levels of stress and negative emotions. Finally, the findings showed an influence of driving experience on reported levels of stress. Overall, this study shows how previous work on defensive behaviors can be used to gain insight into the processes and driving behaviors involved in hazard anticipation and stress.

Evaluation of assistance systems allowing older drivers to intercept moving inter-vehicular space.

Introduction: The objective of the present study was to test two Advanced Driving Assistance Systems (ADAS) designed to help older drivers to intercept a moving inter-vehicular space. Method: Older and younger drivers were asked to intercept a moving inter-vehicular space within a train of vehicles in a driving simulator. Three ADAS conditions (No-ADAS, Head Down, Head Up) as well as five distinct speed regulation conditions were tested. Vehicle trajectory, gaze behavior and acceptance were analyzed. Results: Our results reveal that the ADAS tested make it possible to perform the interception task but also to reduce the variability of the behavior produced. They also indicate that the location of the augmented information provided by the ADAS directly impacts the information-gathering strategy implemented. Finally, whereas younger divers reported mixed levels of ADAS acceptance, older drivers reported a good level of acceptance. Discussion: All these results could be particularly useful with a view of designing ADAS for older drivers.

Detecting driver stress and hazard anticipation using real-time cardiac measurement: A simulator study.

OBJECTIVES: In the context of growing interest in real-time driver stress detection systems, we question the value of using heart rate change over short time periods to detect driver stress and hazard anticipation. METHODS: To this end, we explored changes in heart rate and speed as well as perceived stress in 27 drivers in a driving simulator. Driver stress was triggered by using hazardous road events, while hazard anticipation was manipulated using three levels of hazard predictability: unpredictable (U), predictable (P), and predictable and familiar (PF). RESULTS: The main results indicate that using heart rate change (1) is a good indicator for detecting driver stress in real time, (2) provides a cardiac signature of hazard anticipation, and (3) was affected by perceived stress groups. Further investigation is needed to validate the lack of relationship between increased anticipation/predictability and strengthened cardiac signature. CONCLUSIONS: These results support the use of heart rate change as an indicator of real-time driver stress and hazard anticipation.