Cyclometalated (N,C) Au(III) Complexes: The Impact of Trans Effects on Their Synthesis, Structure, and Reactivity.

ConspectusThe early years of gold catalysis were dominated by Au(I) complexes and inorganic Au(III) salts. Thanks to the development of chelating ligands, more sophisticated Au(III) complexes can now be easily prepared and handled. The choice of the ancillary ligand has great consequences for the synthesis, properties, and reactivity of the Au(III) complex in question. Among the major factors controlling reactivity are the "trans effect" and the "trans influence" that a ligand imparts at the ligand trans to itself. The kinetic trans effect manifests itself with an increased labilization of the ligand trans to a given ligand and arises from an interplay between ground-state and transition-state effects. The term trans influence, on the other hand, is a ground-state effect only, describing the tendency of a given ligand to weaken the metal-ligand bond trans to itself. Herein, we will use the term "trans effect" to describe both the kinetic and the thermodynamic properties, whereas the term "trans influence" will refer only to thermodynamic properties. We will describe how these trans effects strongly impact the chemistry of the commonly encountered cyclometalated (N,C) Au(III) complexes, a class of complexes we have studied for more than a decade. We found that the outcome of reactions like alkylation, arylation, and alkynylation as well as halide metathesis are dictated by the different trans influence of the two termini of the chelating tpy ligand in (tpy)Au(OAcF)2 (tpy = 2-(p-tolyl)pyridine, OAcF = OCOCF3, tpy-C > tpy-N). There is a strong preference for high trans influence ligands to end up trans to tpy-N, whereas the lower trans influence ligands end up trans to tpy-C. Taking advantage of these preferences, tailor-made (N,C)Au(III) complexes could be prepared. For the functionalization of alkenes at (tpy)Au(OAcF)2, the higher trans effect of tpy-C would suggest that the coordination site trans to tpy-C would be kinetically more available than the one trans to tpy-N. However, due to the thermodynamic preference of having the σ-bonded ligand, resulting from the nucleophilic addition to alkenes, trans to tpy-N, functionalization of alkenes was only observed trans to tpy-N. However, for a catalytic process, the reaction should happen trans to tpy-C, as was observed for the trifluoroacetoxylation of acetylene. When functionalizing acetylene in the coordination site trans to tpy-N, protolytic cleavage of the Au-C(vinyl) bond to release the product did not occur at all, whereas trans to tpy-C protolytic cleavage of the Au-C(vinyl) bond occurred readily, in agreement with the higher trans influence of tpy-C over tpy-N. The large impact of the trans effects in Au(III) complexes is finally exemplified with the synthesis of [(tpy)Au(π-allyl)]+[NTf2]-, which resulted in a highly asymmetric π + σ bonding of the allyl moiety. Here, the bonding is such that the most thermodynamically favorable situation is achieved, with the carbon trans to tpy-N bonded in a σ-fashion and the π-allyl double bond being coordinated trans to tpy-C.

CO2 hydrogenation to methanol over Pt functionalized Hf-UiO-67 versus Zr-UiO-67.

Sustainable methanol formation from CO2/H2 is potentially a key process in the post-fossil chemical industry. In this study, Hf- and Zr-based metal-organic framework (MOF) materials with UiO-67 topology, functionalized with Pt nanoparticles, have been tested for CO2 hydrogenation at 30 bar and 170-240°C. The highest methanol formation rate, 14 molmethanol molPt-1 h-1, was obtained over a Hf-based catalyst, compared with the maximum of 6.2 molmethanol molPt-1 h-1 for the best Zr-based analogue. However, changing the node metal did not significantly affect product distribution or apparent activation energy for methanol formation (44-52 kJ mol-1), strongly indicating that the higher activity of the Hf-based analogues is associated with a higher number of active sites. Both catalysts showed stable catalytic performance during testing under kinetic conditions, but the addition of 2 vol% water to the feed induced catalyst deactivation, in particular the Hf-MOFs. Interestingly, mainly methanol and methane formation rates decreased, while CO formation rates were less affected by deactivation. No direct correlation was found between catalytic stability and framework stability (crystallinity, specific surface area). Experimental and computational studies suggest that water adsorption strength to the MOF node may affect the relative catalytic stability of Hf-UiO-67-Pt versus Zr-UiO-67-Pt methanol catalysts.This article is part of the discussion meeting issue 'Green carbon for the chemical industry of the future'.

Hydrogenation of CO2 to Methanol by Pt Nanoparticles Encapsulated in UiO-67: Deciphering the Role of the Metal-Organic Framework.

Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) show great prospect as catalysts and catalyst support materials. Yet, studies that address their dynamic, kinetic, and mechanistic role in target reactions are scarce. In this study, an exceptionally stable MOF catalyst consisting of Pt nanoparticles (NPs) embedded in a Zr-based UiO-67 MOF was subject to steady-state and transient kinetic studies involving H/D and 13C/12C exchange, coupled with operando infrared spectroscopy and density functional theory (DFT) modeling, targeting methanol formation from CO2/H2 feeds at 170 °C and 1-8 bar pressure. The study revealed that methanol is formed at the interface between the Pt NPs and defect Zr nodes via formate species attached to the Zr nodes. Methanol formation is mechanistically separated from the formation of coproducts CO and methane, except for hydrogen activation on the Pt NPs. Careful analysis of transient data revealed that the number of intermediates was higher than the number of open Zr sites in the MOF lattice around each Pt NP. Hence, additional Zr sites must be available for formate formation. DFT modeling revealed that Pt NP growth is sufficiently energetically favored to enable displacement of linkers and creation of open Zr sites during pretreatment. However, linker displacement during formate formation is energetically disfavored, in line with the excellent catalyst stability observed experimentally. Overall, the study provides firm evidence that methanol is formed at the interface of Pt NPs and linker-deficient Zr6O8 nodes resting on the Pt NP surface.

Influence of Defects and H2O on the Hydrogenation of CO2 to Methanol over Pt Nanoparticles in UiO-67 Metal-Organic Framework.

In catalysts for CO2 hydrogenation, the interface between metal nanoparticles (NPs) and the support material is of high importance for the activity and reaction selectivity. In Pt NP-containing UiO Zr-metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), key intermediates in methanol formation are adsorbed at open Zr-sites at the Pt-MOF interface. In this study, we investigate the dynamic role of the Zr-node and the influence of H2O on the CO2 hydrogenation reaction at 170 °C, through steady state and transient isotope exchange experiments, H2O cofeed measurements, and density functional theory (DFT) calculations. The study revealed that an increased number of Zr-node defects increase the formation rates to both methanol and methane. Transient experiments linked the increase to a higher number of surface intermediates for both products. Experiments involving either dehydrated or prehydrated Zr-nodes showed higher methanol and methane formation rates over the dehydrated Zr-node. Transient experiments suggested that the difference is related to competitive adsorption between methanol and water. DFT calculations and microkinetic modeling support this conclusion and give further insight into the equilibria involved in the competitive adsorption process. The calculations revealed weaker adsorption of methanol in defective or dehydrated nodes, in agreement with the larger gas phase concentration of methanol observed experimentally. The microkinetic model shows that [Zr2(µ-O)2]4+ and [Zr2(µ-OH)(µ-O)(OH)(H2O)]4+ are the main surface species when the concentration of water is lower than the number of defect sites. Lastly, although addition of water was found to promote methanol desorption, water does not change the methanol steady state reaction rate, while it has a substantial inhibiting effect on CH4 formation. These results indicate that water can be used to increase the reaction selectivity to methanol and encourages further detailed investigations of the catalyst system.

A Highly Asymmetric Gold(III) η3 -Allyl Complex.

A highly asymmetric AuIII η3 -allyl complex has been generated by treating Au(η1 -allyl)Br(tpy) (tpy=2-(p-tolyl)pyridine) with AgNTf2 . The resulting η3 -allyl complex has been characterized by NMR spectroscopy and X-ray crystallography. DFT calculations and variable temperature 1 H NMR suggest that the allyl ligand is highly fluxional.

Mechanistic Study of an Improved Ni Precatalyst for Suzuki-Miyaura Reactions of Aryl Sulfamates: Understanding the Role of Ni(I) Species.

Nickel precatalysts are potentially a more sustainable alternative to traditional palladium precatalysts for the Suzuki-Miyaura coupling reaction. Currently, there is significant interest in Suzuki-Miyaura coupling reactions involving readily accessible phenolic derivatives such as aryl sulfamates, as the sulfamate moiety can act as a directing group for the prefunctionalization of the aromatic backbone of the electrophile prior to cross-coupling. By evaluating complexes in the Ni(0), (I), and (II) oxidation states we report a precatalyst, (dppf)Ni(o-tolyl)(Cl) (dppf = 1,1'-bis(diphenylphosphino)ferrocene), for Suzuki-Miyaura coupling reactions involving aryl sulfamates and boronic acids, which operates at a significantly lower catalyst loading and at milder reaction conditions than other reported systems. In some cases it can even function at room temperature. Mechanistic studies on precatalyst activation and the speciation of nickel during catalysis reveal that Ni(I) species are formed in the catalytic reaction via two different pathways: (i) the precatalyst (dppf)Ni(o-tolyl)(Cl) undergoes comproportionation with the active Ni(0) species; and (ii) the catalytic intermediate (dppf)Ni(Ar)(sulfamate) (Ar = aryl) undergoes comproportionation with the active Ni(0) species. In both cases the formation of Ni(I) is detrimental to catalysis, which is proposed to proceed via a Ni(0)/Ni(II) cycle. DFT calculations are used to support experimental observations and provide insight about the elementary steps involved in reactions directly on the catalytic cycle, as well as off-cycle processes. Our mechanistic investigation provides guidelines for designing even more active nickel catalysts.

Deciphering Selectivity in Organic Reactions: A Multifaceted Problem.

Computational chemistry has made a sustained contribution to the understanding of chemical reactions. In earlier times, half a century ago, the goal was to distinguish allowed from forbidden reactions (e.g., Woodward-Hoffmann rules), that is, reactions with low or high to very high activation barriers. A great achievement of computational chemistry was also to contribute to the determination of structures with the bonus of proposing a rationalization (e.g., anomeric effect, isolobal analogy, Gillespie valence shell pair electron repulsion rules and counter examples, Wade-Mingos rules for molecular clusters). With the development of new methods and the constant increase in computing power, computational chemists move to more challenging problems, close to the daily concerns of the experimental chemists, in determining the factors that make a reaction both efficient and selective: a key issue in organic synthesis. For this purpose, experimental chemists use advanced synthetic and analytical techniques to which computational chemists added other ways of determining reaction pathways. The transition states and intermediates contributing to the transformation of reactants into the desired and undesired products can now be determined, including their geometries, energies, charges, spin densities, spectroscopy properties, etc. Such studies remain challenging due to the large number of chemical species commonly present in the reactive media whose role may have to be determined. Calculating chemical systems as they are in the experiment is not always possible, bringing its own share of complexity through the large number of atoms and the associated large number of conformers to consider. Modeling the chemical species with smaller systems is an alternative that historically led to artifacts. Another important topic is the choice of the computational method. While DFT is widely used, the vast diversity of functionals available is both an opportunity and a challenge. Though chemical knowledge helps, the relevant computational method is best chosen in conjunction with the nature of the experimental systems and many studies have been concerned with this topic. We will not address this aspect but give references in the text. Usually, a computational study starts with the validation of the method by means of benchmark calculations vs accurate experimental data or state-of-the-art calculations. Finally, computational chemists can bring more than the sole determination of the reaction pathways through the analysis of the electronic structure. In our case, we have privileged the NBO analysis, which has the advantage of describing interactions on the basis of terms and concepts that are shared within the chemical community. In this Account, we have chosen to select representative reactions from our own work to highlight the diversity of situations than can be addressed nowadays. These include selective activation of C(sp(3))-H bonds, selective reactions with low energy barriers, involving closed shell or radical species, the role of noncovalent interactions, and the importance of considering side reactions.

A Combined Experimental/Computational Study of the Mechanism of a Palladium-Catalyzed Bora-Negishi Reaction.

Experimental and computational efforts are reported which illuminate the mechanism of a novel boron version of the widespread Negishi coupling reaction that offers a new protocol for the formation of aryl/acyl C-B bonds using a bulky boryl fragment. The role of nucleophilic borylzinc reagents in the reduction of the PdII pre-catalysts to Pd0 active species has been demonstrated. The non-innocent behavior of the PPh3 ligands of the [Pd(PPh3 )2 Cl2 ] pre-catalyst under activation conditions has been probed both experimentally and computationally, revealing the formation of a trimetallic Pd species bearing bridging phosphide (PPh2- ) ligands. Our studies also reveal the monoligated formulation of the Pd0 active species, which led us to synthesize related (η3 -indenyl)Pd-monophosphine catalysts which show improved catalytic performances under mild conditions. A complete mechanistic proposal to aid future catalyst developments is provided.

A gold exchange: a mechanistic study of a reversible, formal ethylene insertion into a gold(III)-oxygen bond.

The Au(III) complex Au(OAc(F))2(tpy) (1, OAc(F) = OCOCF3; tpy = 2-p-tolylpyridine) undergoes reversible dissociation of the OAc(F) ligand trans to C, as seen by (19)F NMR. In dichloromethane or trifluoroacetic acid (TFA), the reaction between 1 and ethylene produces Au(OAc(F))(CH2CH2OAc(F))(tpy) (2). The reaction is a formal insertion of the olefin into the Au-O bond trans to N. In TFA this reaction occurs in less than 5 min at ambient temperature, while 1 day is required in dichloromethane. In trifluoroethanol (TFE), Au(OAc(F))(CH2CH2OCH2CF3)(tpy) (3) is formed as the major product. Both 2 and 3 have been characterized by X-ray crystallography. In TFA/TFE mixtures, 2 and 3 are in equilibrium with a slight thermodynamic preference for 2 over 3. Exposure of 2 to ethylene-d4 in TFA caused exchange of ethylene-d4 for ethylene at room temperature. The reaction of 1 with cis-1,2-dideuterioethylene furnished Au(OAc(F))(threo-CHDCHDOAc(F))(tpy), consistent with an overall anti addition to ethylene. DFT(PBE0-D3) calculations indicate that the first step of the formal insertion is an associative substitution of the OAc(F) trans to N by ethylene. Addition of free (-)OAc(F) to coordinated ethylene furnishes 2. While substitution of OAc(F) by ethylene trans to C has a lower barrier, the kinetic and thermodynamic preference of 2 over the isomer with CH2CH2OAc(F) trans to C accounts for the selective formation of 2. The DFT calculations suggest that the higher reaction rates observed in TFA and TFE compared with CH2Cl2 arise from stabilization of the (-)OAc(F) anion lost during the first reaction step.

Nickel(I) monomers and dimers with cyclopentadienyl and indenyl ligands.

The reaction of (µ-Cl)2Ni2(NHC)2 (NHC = 1,3-bis(2,6-diisopropylphenyl)-1,3-dihydro-2H-imidazol-2-ylidene (IPr) or 1,3-bis(2,6-diisopropylphenyl)imidazolidin-2-ylidene (SIPr)) with either one equivalent of sodium cyclopentadienyl (NaCp) or lithium indenyl (LiInd) results in the formation of diamagnetic NHC supported Ni(I) dimers of the form (µ-Cp)(µ-Cl)Ni2(NHC)2 (NHC = IPr (1 a) or SIPr (1 b); Cp = C5H5) or (µ-Ind)(µ-Cl)Ni2(NHC)2 (NHC = IPr (2 a) or SIPr (2 b); Ind = C7H9), which contain bridging Cp and indenyl ligands. The corresponding reaction between two equivalents of NaCp or LiInd and (µ-Cl)2Ni2(NHC)2 (NHC = IPr or SIPr) generates unusual 17 valence electron Ni(I) monomers of the form (η(5)-Cp)Ni(NHC) (NHC = IPr (3 a) or SIPr (3 b)) or (η(5)-Ind)Ni(NHC) (NHC = IPr (4 a) or SIPr (4 b)), which have nonlinear geometries. A combination of DFT calculations and NBO analysis suggests that the Ni(I) monomers are more strongly stabilized by the Cp ligand than by the indenyl ligand, which is consistent with experimental results. These calculations also show that the monomers have a lone unpaired-single-electron in their valence shell, which is the reason for the nonlinear structures. At room temperature the Cp bridged dimer (µ-Cp)(µ-Cl)Ni2(NHC)2 undergoes homolytic cleavage of the Ni-Ni bond and is in equilibrium with (η(5)-Cp)Ni(NHC) and (µ-Cl)2Ni2(NHC)2. There is no evidence that this equilibrium occurs for (µ-Ind)(µ-Cl)Ni2(NHC)2. DFT calculations suggest that a thermally accessible triplet state facilitates the homolytic dissociation of the Cp bridged dimers, whereas for bridging indenyl species this excited triplet state is significantly higher in energy. In stoichiometric reactions, the Ni(I) monomers (η(5)-Cp)Ni(NHC) or (η(5)-Ind)Ni(NHC) undergo both oxidative and reductive processes with mild reagents. Furthermore, they are rare examples of active Ni(I) precatalysts for the Suzuki-Miyaura reaction. Complexes 1 a, 2 b, 3 a, 4 a and 4 b have been characterized by X-ray crystallography.

An unusual example of hypervalent silicon: a five-coordinate silyl group bridging two palladium or nickel centers through a nonsymmetrical four-center two-electron bond.

Pd and Ni dimers supported by PSiP ligands in which two hypervalent five-coordinate Si atoms bridge the two metal centers are reported. Crystallographic characterization revealed a rare square-pyramidal geometry at Si and an unusual asymmetric M2 Si2 core (M=Pd or Ni). DFT calculations showed that the unusual structure of the core is also found in a model in which the phosphine and Si centers are not part of a pincer group, thus indicating that the observed geometry is not imposed by the PSiP ligand. NBO analysis showed that an asymmetric four-center two-electron (4c-2e) bond stabilizes the hypervalent Si atoms in the M2 Si2 core.

Directional multiobjective optimization of metal complexes at the billion-system scale.

The discovery of transition metal complexes (TMCs) with optimal properties requires large ligand libraries and efficient multiobjective optimization algorithms. Here we provide the tmQMg-L library, containing 30k diverse and synthesizable ligands with robustly assigned charges and metal coordination modes. tmQMg-L enabled the generation of 1.37 million palladium TMCs, which were used to develop and benchmark the Pareto-Lighthouse multiobjective genetic algorithm (PL-MOGA). With fine control over aim and scope, this algorithm maximized both the polarizability and highest occupied molecular orbital-lowest unoccupied molecular orbital gap of the TMCs within selected regions of the Pareto front, without requiring prior knowledge on the objective limits. Instead of genetic operations on small ligand fragments, the PL-MOGA did whole-ligand mutation and crossover operations, which in chemical spaces containing billions of systems, yielded thousands of highly diverse TMCs in an interpretable manner.

Unveiling the mechanism of triphos-Ru catalysed C-O bond disconnections in polymers.

Ruthenium complexes with facially coordinating tripodal phosphine ligands are privileged catalysts for a broad range of (de-)hydrogenation-based transformations. Among these, C-O bond hydrogenolysis holds potential for the depolymerisation of both the biopolymer lignin and epoxy resins applied in wind turbine blades, aircrafts and more. However, this methodology is poorly understood in mechanistic terms. Here, we present a detailed investigation on the triphos-Ru catalysed C-O bond scission on a molecular level. A combination of experimental, spectroscopical and theoretical studies elucidates the reactivity of the ruthenium trimethylenemethane precatalyst, revealing the key roles of ruthenium phenolates in both catalyst activation as well as the catalytic cycle itself. Furthermore, a Ru(0)/Ru(II) oxidative addition into the C-O bond is disclosed, with a triphos-Ru(0) dihydrogen complex as entry point. With the molecular nature of the operating triphos-Ru species and the thermodynamics and kinetics of the catalysis unravelled, improvements of established methods as well as design of related transformations may become possible.

Important Role of NH-Carbazole in Aryl Amination Reactions Catalyzed by 2-Aminobiphenyl Palladacycles.

2-Aminobiphenyl palladacycles are among the most successful precatalysts for Pd-catalyzed cross-coupling reactions, including aryl amination. However, the role of NH-carbazole, a byproduct of precatalyst activation, remains poorly understood. Herein, the mechanism of the aryl amination reactions catalyzed by a cationic 2-aminobiphenyl palladacycle supported by a terphenyl phosphine ligand, PCyp2ArXyl2 (Cyp = cyclopentyl; ArXyl2 = 2,6-bis(2,6-dimethylphenyl)phenyl), P1, has been thoroughly investigated. Combining computational and experimental studies, we found that the Pd(II) oxidative addition intermediate reacts with NH-carbazole in the presence of the base (NaO t Bu) to yield a stable aryl carbazolyl Pd(II) complex. This species functions as the catalyst resting state, providing the amount of monoligated LPd(0) species required for catalysis and minimizing Pd decomposition. In the case of a reaction with aniline, an equilibrium between the carbazolyl complex and the on-cycle anilido analogue is established, which allows for a fast reaction at room temperature. In contrast, heating is required in a reaction with alkylamines, whose deprotonation involves coordination to the Pd center. A microkinetic model was built combining computational and experimental data to validate the mechanistic proposals. In conclusion, our study shows that despite the rate reduction observed in some reactions by the formation of the aryl carbazolyl Pd(II) complex, this species reduces catalyst decomposition and could be considered an alternative precatalyst in cross-coupling reactions.

Tracking Lattice Distortion Induced by Defects and Framework Tin in Beta Zeotypes.

The use of powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD) coupled with lattice parameter refinement is used to investigate the crystal structure of Sn-Beta materials. A newly developed semiempirical PXRD model with a reduced tetragonal unit cell is applied to obtain the characteristic crystallographic features. There is a robust correlation between lattice parameters and the concentration of tin and defects for materials prepared via hydrothermal (HT) and postsynthetic (PT) methods. With tin incorporation, PT Sn-Beta samples, which possess a more defective structure, exhibit an extended interlayer distance in the stacking sequence and expansion of the translation symmetry within the layers, leading to larger unit cell dimensions. In contrast, HT Sn-Beta samples, having fewer defects, show a minimal effect of tin site density on the unit cell volume, whereas lattice distortion is directly correlated to the framework tin density. Furthermore, density functional theory (DFT) studies support an identical trend of lattice distortion following the monoisomorphous substitution of T sites from silicon to tin. These findings highlight that PXRD can serve as a rapid and straightforward characterization method to evaluate both framework defects and heteroatom density, offering a novel approach to monitor structural changes and the possibility to evaluate the catalytic properties of heteroatom-incorporated zeotypes.

Exploring the Parameters Controlling Product Selectivity in Electrochemical CO2 Reduction in Competition with Hydrogen Evolution Employing Manganese Bipyridine Complexes.

Selective reduction of CO2 is an efficient solution for producing nonfossil-based chemical feedstocks and simultaneously alleviating the increasing atmospheric concentration of this greenhouse gas. With this aim, molecular electrocatalysts are being extensively studied, although selectivity remains an issue. In this work, a combined experimental-computational study explores how the molecular structure of Mn-based complexes determines the dominant product in the reduction of CO2 to HCOOH, CO, and H2. In contrast to previous Mn(bpy-R)(CO)3Br catalysts containing alkyl amines in the vicinity of the Br ligand, here, we report that bpy-based macrocycles locking these amines at the side opposite to the Br ligand change the product selectivity from HCOOH to H2. Ab initio molecular dynamics simulations of the active species showed that free rotation of the Mn(CO)3 moiety allows for the approach of the protonated amine to the reactive center yielding a Mn-hydride intermediate, which is the key in the formation of H2 and HCOOH. Additional studies with DFT methods showed that the macrocyclic moiety hinders the insertion of CO2 to the metal hydride favoring the formation of H2 over HCOOH. Further, our results suggest that the minor CO product observed experimentally is formed when CO2 adds to Mn on the side opposite to the amine ligand before protonation. These results show how product selectivity can be modulated by ligand design in Mn-based catalysts, providing atomistic details that can be leveraged in the development of a fully selective system.

Synthesis of PCP-supported nickel complexes and their reactivity with carbon dioxide.

The Ni amide and hydroxide complexes [(PCP)Ni(NH(2))] (2; PCP=bis-2,6-di-tert-butylphosphinomethylbenzene) and [(PCP)Ni(OH)] (3) were prepared by treatment of [(PCP)NiCl] (1) with NaNH(2) or NaOH, respectively. The conditions for the formation of 3 from 1 and NaOH were harsh (2 weeks in THF at reflux) and a more facile synthetic route involved protonation of 2 with H(2)O, to generate 3 and ammonia. Similarly the basic amide in 2 was protonated with a variety of other weak acids to form the complexes [(PCP)Ni(2-Me-imidazole)] (4), [(PCP)Ni(dimethylmalonate)] (5), [(PCP)Ni(oxazole)] (6), and [(PCP)Ni(CCPh)] (7), respectively. The hydroxide compound 3, could also be used as a Ni precursor and treatment of 3 with TMSCN (TMS=trimethylsilyl) or TMSN(3) generated [(PCP)Ni(CN)] (8) or [(PCP)Ni(N(3))] (9), respectively. Compounds 3-7, and 9 were characterized by X-ray crystallography. Although 3, 4, 6, 7, and 9 are all four-coordinate complexes with a square-planar geometry around Ni, 5 is a pseudo-five-coordinate complex, with the dimethylmalonate ligand coordinated in an X-type fashion through one oxygen atom, and weakly as an L-type ligand through another oxygen atom. Complexes 2-9 were all reacted with carbon dioxide. Compounds 2-4 underwent facile reaction at low temperature to form the κ(1)-O carboxylate products [(PCP)Ni{OC(O)NH(2)}] (10), [(PCP)Ni{OC(O)OH}] (11), and [(PCP)Ni{OC(O)-2-Me-imidazole}] (12), respectively. Compounds 10 and 11 were characterized by X-ray crystallography. No reaction was observed between 5-9 and carbon dioxide, even at elevated temperatures. DFT calculations were performed to model the thermodynamics for the insertion of carbon dioxide into 2-9 to form a κ(1)-O carboxylate product and understand the pathways for carbon dioxide insertion into 2, 3, 6, and 7. The computed free energies indicate that carbon dioxide insertion into 2 and 3 is thermodynamically favorable, insertion into 8 and 9 is significantly uphill, insertion into 5 and 7 is slightly uphill, and insertion into 4 and 6 is close to thermoneutral. The pathway for insertion into 2 and 3 has a low barrier and involves nucleophilic attack of the nitrogen or oxygen lone pair on electrophilic carbon dioxide. A related stepwise pathway is calculated for 7, but in this case the carbon of the alkyne is significantly less nucleophilic and as a result, the barrier for carbon dioxide insertion is high. In contrast, carbon dioxide insertion into 6 involves a single concerted step that has a high barrier.

Mild, reversible reaction of iridium(III) amido complexes with carbon dioxide.

Unlike some other Ir(III) hydrides, the aminopyridine complex [(2-NH(2)-C(5)NH(4))IrH(3)(PPh(3))(2)] (1-PPh(3)) does not insert CO(2) into the Ir-H bond. Instead 1-PPh(3) loses H(2) to form the cyclometalated species [(κ(2)-N,N-2-NH-C(5)NH(4))IrH(2)(PPh(3))(2)] (2-PPh(3)), which subsequently reacts with CO(2) to form the carbamato species [(κ(2)-O,N-2-OC(O)NH-C(5)NH(4))IrH(2)(PPh(3))(2)] (10-PPh(3)). To study the insertion of CO(2) into the Ir-N bond of the cyclometalated species, a family of compounds of the type [(κ(2)-N,N-2-NR-C(5)NH(4))IrH(2)(PR'(3))(2)] (R = H, R' = Ph (2-PPh(3)); R = H, R' = Cy (2-PCy(3)); R = Me, R' = Ph (4-PPh(3)); R = Ph, R' = Ph (5-PPh(3)); R = Ph, R' = Cy (5-PCy(3))) and the pyrimidine complex [(κ(2)-N,N-2-NH-C(4)N(2)H(3))IrH(2)(PPh(3))(2)] (6-PPh(3)) were prepared. The rate of CO(2) insertion is faster for the more nucleophilic amides. DFT studies suggest that the mechanism of insertion involves initial nucleophilic attack of the nitrogen lone pair of the amide on CO(2) to form an N-bound carbamato complex, followed by rearrangement to the O-bound species. CO(2) insertion into 1-PPh(3) is reversible in the presence of H(2) and treatment of 10-PPh(3) with H(2) regenerates 1-PPh(3), along with Ir(PPh(3))(2)H(5).

Synthesis of substituted (N,C) and (N,C,C) Au(III) complexes: the influence of sterics and electronics on cyclometalation reactions.

Cyclometalated Au(III) complexes are of interest due to their catalytic, medicinal, and photophysical properties. Herein, we describe the synthesis of derivatives of the type (N,C)Au(OAcF)2 (OAcF = trifluoroacetate) and (N,C,C)AuOAcF by a cyclometalation route, where (N,C) and (N,C,C) are chelating 2-arylpyridine ligands. The scope of the synthesis is explored by substituting the 2-arylpyridine core with electron donor or acceptor substituents at one or both rings. Notably, a variety of functionalized Au(III) complexes can be obtained in one step from the corresponding ligand and Au(OAc)3, eliminating the need for organomercury intermediates, which is commonly reported for similar syntheses. The influence of substituents in the ligand backbone on the resulting complexes was assessed using DFT calculations, 15N NMR spectroscopy and single-crystal X-ray diffraction analysis. A correlation between the electronic properties of the (N,C) ligands and their ability to undergo cyclometalation was found from experimental studies combined with natural charge analysis, suggesting the cyclometalation at Au(III) to take place via an electrophilic aromatic substitution-type mechanism. The formation of Au(III) pincer complexes from tridentate (N,C,C) ligands was investigated by synthesis and DFT calculations, in order to assess the feasibility of C(sp3)-H bond activation as a synthetic pathway to (N,C,C) cyclometalated Au(III) complexes. It was found that C(sp3)-H bond activation is feasible for ligands containing different alkyl groups (isopropyl and ethyl), although the C-H activation is less energetically favored compared to a ligand containing tert-butyl groups.

Selective Functionalization of Arene C(sp2)-H Bonds by Gold Catalysis: The Role of Carbene Substituents.

The complete regioselective incorporation of carbene units to nonactivated arene rings has been achieved employing gold(I) catalysts bearing alkoxydiaminophosphine ligands, with readily available, nonelaborated ethyl 2-phenyldiazoacetate as the carbene source. These results are in contrast with the scarce precedents which required highly elaborated diazo substrates. Density functional theory (DFT) calculations have revealed the important role of the R group in the C(R)CO2Et fragment, which dramatically affects the energy profile of this transformation.