Public health emergency preparedness for infectious disease emergencies: a scoping review of recent evidence.

BACKGROUND: The COVID-19 pandemic continues to demonstrate the risks and profound health impacts that result from infectious disease emergencies. Emergency preparedness has been defined as the knowledge, capacity and organizational systems that governments, response and recovery organizations, communities and individuals develop to anticipate, respond to, or recover from emergencies. This scoping review explored recent literature on priority areas and indicators for public health emergency preparedness (PHEP) with a focus on infectious disease emergencies. METHODS: Using scoping review methodology, a comprehensive search was conducted for indexed and grey literature with a focus on records published from 2017 to 2020 onward, respectively. Records were included if they: (a) described PHEP, (b) focused on an infectious emergency, and (c) were published in an Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development country. An evidence-based all-hazards Resilience Framework for PHEP consisting of 11 elements was used as a reference point to identify additional areas of preparedness that have emerged in recent publications. The findings were analyzed deductively and summarized thematically. RESULTS: The included publications largely aligned with the 11 elements of the all-hazards Resilience Framework for PHEP. In particular, the elements related to collaborative networks, community engagement, risk analysis and communication were frequently observed across the publications included in this review. Ten emergent themes were identified that expand on the Resilience Framework for PHEP specific to infectious diseases. Planning to mitigate inequities was a key finding of this review, it was the most frequently identified emergent theme. Additional emergent themes were: research and evidence-informed decision making, building vaccination capacity, building laboratory and diagnostic system capacity, building infection prevention and control capacity, financial investment in infrastructure, health system capacity, climate and environmental health, public health legislation and phases of preparedness. CONCLUSION: The themes from this review contribute to the evolving understanding of critical public health emergency preparedness actions. The themes expand on the 11 elements outlined in the Resilience Framework for PHEP, specifically relevant to pandemics and infectious disease emergencies. Further research will be important to validate these findings, and expand understanding of how refinements to PHEP frameworks and indicators can support public health practice.

Media Portrayal of Older Adults Across Five Canadian Disasters.

We conducted a constructivist grounded theory approach in which discourse analysis was used to explore how Canadian news media portrays older adults and aging in a disaster context. We analyzed 119 articles covering five Canadian disasters and identified four themes: (a) stereotypes of older adults are presented on a positive-negative continuum in journalistic coverage of disasters, (b) journalistic coverage tends to exclude perspectives of older adults from relevant discourse, (c) journalists assess the value of losses for older adults-"home" as a central concept, and (d) disasters are framed as disrupting retirement ideals. A model was created to provide an overview of the journalistic coverage of older adults in disaster contexts. Understanding how old age and aging are presented by the media in a disaster context is important because it has further implications for informing and structuring disaster risk reduction policies.

Household emergency preparedness: a literature review.

Global policies on disaster risk reduction have highlighted individual and community responsibilities and roles in reducing risk and promoting coping capacity. Strengthening local preparedness is viewed as an essential element in effective response and recovery. This paper presents a synthesis of available literature on household preparedness published over the past 15 years. It emphasizes the complexity of preparedness, involving personal and contextual factors such as health status, self-efficacy, community support, and the nature of the emergency. In addition, people require sufficient knowledge, motivation and resources to engage in preparedness activities. Social networks have been identified as one such resource which contributes to resilience. A predominant gap in the literature is the need for evidence-informed strategies to overcome the identified challenges to household preparedness. In particular, the construct of social capital and how it can be used to foster individual and community capacity in emergency situations requires further study.

Extreme Heat and Pregnancy Outcomes: A Scoping Review of the Epidemiological Evidence.

BACKGROUND: Extreme heat caused by climate change is a major public health concern, disproportionately affecting poor and racialized communities. Gestational heat exposure is a well-established teratogen in animal studies, with a growing body of literature suggesting human pregnancies are similarly at risk. Characterization of extreme heat as a pregnancy risk is problematic due to nonstandard definitions of heat waves, and variable study designs. To better focus future research in this area, we conducted a scoping review to assess the effects of extreme heat on pregnancy outcomes. METHODS: A scoping review of epidemiological studies investigating gestational heat-exposure and published 2010 and 2020, was conducted with an emphasis on study design, gestational windows of sensitivity, adverse pregnancy outcomes and characterization of environmental temperatures. RESULTS: A sample of 84 studies was identified, predominantly set in high-income countries. Preterm birth, birthweight, congenital anomalies and stillbirth were the most common pregnancy outcome variables. Studies reported race/ethnicity and/or socioeconomic variables, however these were not always emphasized in the analysis. CONCLUSION: Use of precise temperature data by most studies avoided pitfalls of imprecise, regional definitions of heat waves, however inconsistent study design, and exposure windows are a significant challenge to systematic evaluation of this literature. Despite the high risk of extreme heat events and limited mitigation strategies in the global south, there is a significant gap in the epidemiological literature from these regions. Greater consistency in study design and exposure windows would enhance the rigor of this field.

Infectious respiratory disease outbreaks and pregnancy: occupational health and safety concerns of Canadian nurses.

INTRODUCTION: This paper is a report of a qualitative study of emergency and critical care nurses' perceptions of occupational response and preparedness during infectious respiratory disease outbreaks including severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) and influenza. PROBLEM: Healthcare workers, predominantly female, face occupational and personal challenges in their roles as first responders/first receivers. Exposure to SARS or other respiratory pathogens during pregnancy represents additional occupational risk for healthcare workers. METHODS: Perceptions of occupational reproductive risk during response to infectious respiratory disease outbreaks were assessed qualitatively by five focus groups comprised of 100 Canadian nurses conducted between 2005 and 2006. RESULTS: Occupational health and safety issues anticipated by Canadian nurses for future infectious respiratory disease outbreaks were grouped into four major themes: (1) apprehension about occupational risks to pregnant nurses; (2) unknown pregnancy risks of anti-infective therapy/prophylaxis; (3) occupational risk communication for pregnant nurses; and (4) human resource strategies required for pregnant nurses during outbreaks. The reproductive risk perceptions voiced by Canadian nurses generally were consistent with reported case reports of pregnant women infected with SARS or emerging influenza strains. Nurses' fears of fertility risks posed by exposure to infectious agents or anti-infective therapy and prophylaxis are not well supported by the literature, with the former not biologically plausible and the latter lacking sufficient data. CONCLUSIONS: Reproductive risk assessments should be performed for each infectious respiratory disease outbreak to provide female healthcare workers and in particular pregnant women with guidelines regarding infection control and use of anti-infective therapy and prophylaxis.

The roles of emergency managers and emergency social services directors to support disaster risk reduction in Canada.

Emergency managers (EMs) and Emergency Social Services Directors (ESSDs) are essential service providers who fulfill critical roles in disaster risk reduction. Despite being positioned throughout all levels of government, and in the private sector, EMs and ESSDs fulfill roles which occur largely behind the scenes. The purpose of this phenomenological study was to explore the roles of EMs and ESSDs from different regions across Canada. Specifically, we wanted to understand their perceptions of barriers, vulnerabilities and capabilities within the context of their roles. EMs (n = 15) and ESSDs (n = 6) from six Canadian provinces participated in semi-structured telephone interviews. Through content analysis, five themes and one model were generated from the data: 1) Emergency management is not synonymous with first response, 2) Unrealistic expectations for a "side-of-desk" role, 3) Minding the gap between academia and practice with a 'whole-society' approach, 4) Personal preparedness tends to be weak, 5) Behind the scenes roles can have mental health implications. We present a model, based on these themes, which makes explicit the occupational risks that EMs and ESSDs may encounter in carrying out the skills, tasks, and roles of their jobs. Identification of occupational risks is a first step towards reducing vulnerabilities and supporting capability. This is particularly relevant in our current society as increased demands placed on these professionals coincides with the increasing frequency and severity of natural disasters due to climate change and the emergence of the world wide COVID-19 pandemic.

If schools are closed, who will watch our kids? Family caregiving and other sources of role conflict among nurses during large-scale outbreaks.

OBJECTIVES: The global impact of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) brought attention to the role of healthcare professionals as "first receivers" during infectious disease outbreaks, a collateral aspect to their role as responders. This article records and reports concerns expressed by Canadian emergency and critical care nurses in terms of organizational and social supports required during infectious disease outbreaks. The nature of work-family and family-work conflict perceived and experienced by nurses during infectious disease outbreaks, as well as the supports needed to enable them to balance their social roles during this type of heightened stress, are explored. METHODS: Five focus groups consisting of 100 nurses were conducted using a Structured Interview Matrix facilitation technique. RESULTS: Four emergent themes included: (1) substantial personal/professional dilemmas; (2) assistance with child, elder, and/or pet care; (3) adequate resources and vaccinations to protect families; and (4) appropriate mechanisms to enable two-way communication between employees and their families under conditions of quarantine or long work hours. CONCLUSIONS: Social and organizational supports are critical to help buffer the effects of stress for nurses and assist them in managing difficult role conflicts during infectious disease outbreaks. These supports are necessary to improve response capacity for bio-disasters.

From SARS to pandemic influenza: the framing of high-risk populations.

The 2003 global outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) was a wake-up call for health systems in Canada, with realization of occupational health risks faced by health care workers and first responders in public health emergency response. The need for investment in critical social infrastructure-including explicitly articulated plans-became a priority for managing future pandemics. Over the past 15 years, pandemic planning has evolved with the adoption of a whole-of-society approach to disaster risk reduction. There is recognition of the social gradient of risk, which emerges from the interaction between social determinants of health, risk of exposure, and adverse impacts from a pandemic. Additionally, there is better understanding of the benefits of planning according to functional needs, rather than deficit-oriented labelling. In this paper, we reflect on how the framing of vulnerable or high-risk populations has evolved since SARS. Looking to the future, we present the imperative for the creation of institutional space for engagement of high-risk populations in pandemic planning processes, including participatory governance. Innovative consultation strategies are needed to enhance collective asset literacy and ensure planning is adaptive to the changing social fabric. Progressive pandemic planning in the next decade must be inclusive and sensitive to modern definitions of family, varied abilities, cultural practices and gender and sexual diversity, thereby reflecting a whole-of-society approach to disaster risk reduction.

Disaster and emergency management: Canadian nurses' perceptions of preparedness on hospital front lines.

INTRODUCTION: Three years following the global outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), a national, Web-based survey of Canadian nurses was conducted to assess perceptions of preparedness for disasters and access to support mechanisms, particularly for nurses in emergency and critical care units. HYPOTHESES: The following hypotheses were tested: (1) nurses' sense of preparedness for infectious disease outbreaks and naturally occurring disasters will be higher than for chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear (CBRN)-type disasters associated with terrorist attacks; (2) perceptions of preparedness will vary according to previous outbreak experience; and (3) perceptions of personal preparedness will be related to perceived institutional preparedness. METHODS: Nurses from emergency departments and intensive care units across Canada were recruited via flyer mailouts and e-mail notices to complete a 30-minute online survey. RESULTS: A total of 1,543 nurses completed the survey (90% female; 10% male). The results indicate that nurses feel unprepared to respond to large-scale disasters/attacks. The sense of preparedness varied according to the outbreak/disaster scenario with nurses feeling least prepared to respond to a CBRN event. A variety of socio-demographic factors, notably gender, previous outbreak experience (particularly with SARS), full-time vs. part-time job status, and region of employment also were related to perceptions of risk. Approximately 40% of respondents were unaware if their hospital had an emergency plan for a large-scale outbreak. Nurses reported inadequate access to resources to support disaster response capacity and expressed a low degree of confidence in the preparedness of Canadian healthcare institutions for future outbreaks. CONCLUSIONS: Canadian nurses have indicated that considerably more training and information are needed to enhance preparedness for frontline healthcare workers as important members of the response community.

Asset Literacy Following Stroke: Implications for Disaster Resilience.

OBJECTIVE: The World Stroke Organization "1 in 6" campaign aims to raise awareness that 1 in 6 persons will experience a stroke during their lifetime. With aging populations and improved survival rates, an increased number of survivors live with functional limitations and require supportive care. This has important implications for implementing an all-of-society approach to disaster risk reduction. In this study, we explore the assets that stroke survivors and caregivers consider useful in supporting their capacity to manage routine activities and independent living and to respond to a disaster. METHODS: Transcripts from interviews with stroke survivors and caregivers were analyzed by use of content analysis. RESULTS: Assets were categorized into 4 classes: social, physical, energy, and personal characteristics and are presented as a household map. Emergent themes suggested that understanding how to mobilize assets is complicated yet essential for building resilience. Household resilience requires people have self-efficacy and motivation to move from awareness to action. The findings informed development of a conceptual model of asset literacy and household resilience following stroke. CONCLUSIONS: Interventions to enhance asset literacy can support an all-of-society approach to disaster risk reduction through awareness, empowerment, participation, innovation, and engagement. (Disaster Med Public Health Preparedness. 2018; 12: 312-320).

The Promotion of 'Grab Bags' as a Disaster Risk Reduction Strategy.

INTRODUCTION: An all-of-society approach to disaster risk reduction emphasizes inclusion and engagement in preparedness activities. A common recommendation is to promote household preparedness through the preparation of a 'grab bag' or 'disaster kit', that can be used to shelter-in-place or evacuate. However, there are knowledge gaps related to how this strategy is being used around the world as a disaster risk reduction strategy, and what evidence there is to support recommendations. METHODS: In this paper, we present an exploratory study undertaken to provide insight into how grab bag guidelines are used to promote preparedness in Canada, China, England, Japan, and Scotland, and supplemented by a literature review to understand existing evidence for this strategy. RESULTS: There are gaps in the literature regarding evidence on grab bag effectiveness. We also found variations in how grab bag guidelines are promoted across the five case studies. DISCUSSION:  While there are clearly common items recommended for household grab bags (such as water and first aid kits), there are gaps in the literature regarding: 1) the evidence base to inform guidelines; 2) uptake of guidelines; and 3) to what extent grab bags reduce demands on essential services and improve disaster resilience.

Are we ready? Evidence of support mechanisms for Canadian health care workers in multi-jurisdictional emergency planning.

BACKGROUND: Federal, provincial and municipal leaders in Canada have adopted a culture of preparedness with the development and update of emergency plans in anticipation of different types of disasters. As evident during the 2003 global outbreak of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS), it is important to provide support for health care workers (HCWs) who are vulnerable during infectious outbreak scenarios. Here we focus on the identification and evaluation of existing support mechanisms incorporated within emergency plans across various jurisdictional levels. METHODS: Qualitative content analysis of 12 emergency plans from national, provincial and municipal levels were conducted using NVIVO software. The plans were scanned and coded according to 1) informational, 2) instrumental, and 3) emotional support mechanisms for HCWs and other first responders. RESULTS: Emergency plans were comprised of a predominance of informational and instrumental supports, yet few emotional or social support mechanisms. All the plans lacked gender-based analysis of how infectious disease outbreaks impact male and female HCWs differently. Acknowledgement of the need for emotional supports was evident at higher jurisdictional levels, but recommended for implementation locally. CONCLUSIONS: While support mechanisms for HCWs are included in this sample of emergency plans, content analysis revealed few emotional or social supports planned for critical personnel; particularly for those who will be required to work in extremely stressful conditions under significant personal risk. The implications of transferring responsibilities for support to local and institutional jurisdictions are discussed.

In the path of disasters: psychosocial issues for preparedness, response, and recovery.

The psychosocial impacts of disasters are profound. In recent years, there have been too many reminders of these impacts and the dire needs of the people involved. The purpose of this article is to present the following themes from the psychosocial literature on disasters and emergency management: (1) differential impacts of disasters according to gender and age; (2) prevention efforts to reduce racial discrimination, rape, and other forms of abuse; (3) readiness for cultural change toward prevention and preparedness; and (4) the need to involve aid beneficiaries as active partners in relief strategies, particularly during reconstruction of communities and critical systems. Psychosocial needs change throughout the disaster cycle, particularly as social support deteriorates over time. It is important to anticipate what psychosocial needs of the public, emergency responders, support staff, and volunteers might emerge, before advancing to the next stage of the disaster. Particular consideration needs to be directed toward differential impacts of disasters based on gender, age, and other vulnerabilities.

Upstream Disaster Management to Support People Experiencing Homelessness.

The unique context of day-to-day living for people who are chronically homeless or living with housing insecurity puts them at high risk during community disasters. The impacts of extreme events, such as flooding, storms, riots, and other sources of community disruption, underscore the importance of preparedness efforts and fostering community resilience. This study is part of larger initiative focused on enhancing resilience and preparedness among high risk populations. The purpose of this study was to explore critical issues and strategies to promote resilience and disaster preparedness among people who are homeless in Canada. A sample of interviews (n=21) from key informants across Canada was analyzed to explore existing programs and supports for homeless populations. The data was selected from a larger sample of (n=43) interviews focused on programs and supports for people who are at heightened risk for negative impacts during disasters. Qualitative content analysis was used to extract emergent themes and develop a model of multi-level collaboration to support disaster resilience among people who are homeless. The results indicate there is a need for more upstream continuity planning, collaboration and communication between the emergency management sector and community service organizations that support people who are homeless. Prioritization and investment in the social determinants of health and community supports is necessary to promote resilience among this high-risk population. The findings from this study highlight the importance of acknowledging community support organizations as assets in disaster preparedness. Day-to-day resilience is an ongoing theme for people who are chronically homeless or living with housing insecurity. Upstream investment to build adaptive capacity and collaborate with community organizations is an important strategy to enhance community resilience.

Support Needs for Canadian Health Providers Responding to Disaster: New Insights from a Grounded Theory Approach.

INTRODUCTION: An earlier descriptive study exploring the various supports available to Canadian health and social service providers who deployed to the 2010 earthquake disaster in Haiti, indicated that when systems are compromised, professionals are at physical, emotional and mental risk during overseas deployment. While these risks are generally well-identified, there is little literature that explores the effectiveness of the supports in place to mitigate this risk. This study provides evidence to inform policy development regarding future disaster relief, and the effectiveness of supports available to responders assisting with international disaster response. METHODS: This study follows Strauss and Corbin's 1990 structured approach to grounded theory to develop a framework for effective disaster support systems. N=21 interviews with Canadian health and social service providers, who deployed to Haiti in response to the 2010 earthquake, were conducted and analyzed. Resulting data were transcribed, coded and analysed for emergent themes. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: Three themes were identified in the data and were used to develop the evolving theory. The interview data indicate that the experiences of responders are determined based on an interaction between the individual's 'lens' or personal expectations, as well as the supports that an organization is able to provide. Therefore, organizations should consider the following factors: experience, expectations, and supports, to tailor a successful support initiative that caters to the needs of the volunteer workforce.

A model for common ground development to support collaborative health communities.

Common ground is necessary for developing collaboration as part of building resilience for public health preparedness. While the importance of common ground as an essential component of collaboration has been well described, there is a need for studies to identify how common ground develops over time, across individual and group dimensions, and the contexts that influence its development. This paper studied common ground development in three Canadian communities between October 2010 and March 2011 through a project on capacity building for disaster management. Disaster management requires the integration of paid and volunteer participants across public and private sectors and is therefore a good domain to study common ground development. We used directed qualitative content analysis to develop a model of common ground development over time that describes its progression through coordinative, cooperative and collaborative common ground. We also identified how common ground develops at micro (individual) and macro (group) levels, as well as how agency, technology and geographical contexts influence its development. We then use the four phases of disaster management to illustrate how our model can support longitudinal common ground development. Our findings provide useful insight to enable proactive development of common ground in collaborative health communities.

The EnRiCH Community Resilience Framework for High-Risk Populations.

INTRODUCTION: Resilience has been described in many ways and is inherently complex. In essence, it refers to the capacity to face and do well when adversity is encountered. There is a need for empirical research on community level initiatives designed to enhance resilience for high-risk groups as part of an upstream approach to disaster management. In this study, we address this issue, presenting the EnRiCH Community Resilience Framework for High-Risk Populations. METHODS: The framework presented in this paper is empirically-based, using qualitative data from focus groups conducted as part of an asset-mapping intervention in five communities in Canada, and builds on extant literature in the fields of disaster and emergency management, health promotion, and community development. RESULTS: Adaptive capacity is placed at the centre of the framework as a focal point, surrounded by four strategic areas for intervention (awareness/communication, asset/resource management, upstream-oriented leadership, and connectedness/engagement). Three drivers of adaptive capacity (empowerment, innovation, and collaboration) cross-cut the strategic areas and represent levers for action which can influence systems, people and institutions through expansion of asset literacy. Each component of the framework is embedded within the complexity and culture of a community. DISCUSSION: We present recommendations for how this framework can be used to guide the design of future resilience-oriented initiatives with particular emphasis on inclusive engagement across a range of functional capabilities.

Unraveling the complexities of disaster management: a framework for critical social infrastructure to promote population health and resilience.

Complexity is a useful frame of reference for disaster management and understanding population health. An important means to unraveling the complexities of disaster management is to recognize the interdependencies between health care and broader social systems and how they intersect to promote health and resilience before, during and after a crisis. While recent literature has expanded our understanding of the complexity of disasters at the macro level, few studies have examined empirically how dynamic elements of critical social infrastructure at the micro level influence community capacity. The purpose of this study was to explore empirically the complexity of disasters, to determine levers for action where interventions can be used to facilitate collaborative action and promote health among high risk populations. A second purpose was to build a framework for critical social infrastructure and develop a model to identify potential points of intervention to promote population health and resilience. A community-based participatory research design was used in nine focus group consultations (n = 143) held in five communities in Canada, between October 2010 and March 2011, using the Structured Interview Matrix facilitation technique. The findings underscore the importance of interconnectedness of hard and soft systems at the micro level, with culture providing the backdrop for the social fabric of each community. Open coding drawing upon the tenets of complexity theory was used to develop four core themes that provide structure for the framework that evolved; they relate to dynamic context, situational awareness and connectedness, flexible planning, and collaboration, which are needed to foster adaptive responses to disasters. Seven action recommendations are presented, to promote community resilience and population health.

Impact of integrating a physical activity counsellor into the primary health care team: physical activity and health outcomes of the Physical Activity Counselling randomized controlled trial.

The purpose of this paper was to report the physical activity and health outcomes results from the Physical Activity Counselling (PAC) trial. Patients (n = 120, mean age 47.3 ± 11.1 years, 69.2% female) who reported less than 150 min of physical activity per week were recruited from a large community-based Canadian primary care practice. After receiving brief physical activity counselling from their provider, they were randomized to receive 6 additional patient-centered counselling sessions over 3 months from a physical activity counsellor (intensive-counselling group; n = 61), or no further intervention (brief-counselling group; n = 59). Physical activity (self-reported and accelerometer) was measured every 6 weeks up to 25 weeks (12 weeks postintervention). Quality of life was also assessed, and physical and metabolic outcomes were evaluated in a randomly selected subset of patients (33%). In the intent-to-treat analyses of covariance, the intensive-counselling group self-reported significantly higher levels of physical activity at 6 weeks (p = 0.009) and 13 weeks (p = 0.01). There were no differences in self-reported physical activity between the groups after the intervention in the follow-up period, nor was there any increase in accelerometer-measured physical activity. Finally, the intensive-counselling patients showed greater decreases in percent body fat and total fat mass from 13 weeks to 25 weeks. Results for physical activity depended on the method used, with positive short-term results with self-report and no effects with the accelerometers. Between-group differences were found for body composition in that the intensive-counselling patients decreased more. A multisite randomized controlled trial with a longer intensive intervention and follow-up is warranted.

Interdisciplinary physical activity counseling in primary care: a qualitative inquiry of the patient experience.

The Physical Activity Counseling randomized controlled trial integrated a physical activity (PA) counselor into a primary care practice to provide intensive counseling to sedentary patients following brief counseling from their regular health care provider. This article presents the voices of 15 patients, who through a series of 3 interviews, described their experience with this 3-month combined provider PA counseling intervention. Patient satisfaction was a dominant emergent theme, and the patients were particularly positive about the quality of care and educational support for lifestyle change. They favored the tailored approach and felt the strategies for overcoming PA barriers were helpful.