Global health diplomacy in Mexico: insights from key actors in the field.

BACKGROUND: Global health diplomacy (GHD) focuses on the actions taken by diverse stakeholders from different nations -governments, multilateral agents, and civil society- to phenomena that can affect population health and its determinants beyond national borders. Although the literature on conceptual advancements of GHD exists, empirical studies about how health becomes an issue of relevance for foreign policy are scarce. We present an analysis of the entry processes of health into the foreign policy and diplomatic domains in Mexico from the perspective of key informants of three different sectors. METHODS: A purposive sample of high-rank representatives of three sectors involved in GHD was designed: Two from Health Sector (HS), four from Foreign Affairs Sector (FAS), and three from Non-governmental organizations (NGOs). Nine semi-structured interviews were conducted exploring the topics of: (1) Health concerns entering diplomatic and foreign policy; (2) Processes that allow actors to influence foreign policy and negotiation and; (3) Impact of multilateral negotiations on decision-making at the national level. RESULTS: Our analysis suggests that GHD in Mexico is hierarchically driven by the FAS and health concerns only enter foreign policy when they are relevant to national priorities (such as trade or security). HS possesses a lesser degree of influence in GHD, serving as an instance of consultation for the FAS when deciding on health-related issues at global meetings (i.e., World Health Assembly). NGOs resort to lobbying, advocacy, networking, and coalition-working practices with other sectors (academy, think-tanks) to prevent harmful impacts on local health from multilateral decisions and as a mean to compensate its power asymmetry for influencing GHD processes in relation to the government. CONCLUSIONS: GHD in Mexico occurs in a context of asymmetric power relationships where government actors have the strongest influence. However, NGOs' experience in raising awareness of health risks needs to be weighted by government decision-makers. This situation calls for capacity building on intersectoral communication and coordination to create formal mechanisms of GHD practices, including the professionalization and training on GHD among government agencies.

An explanatory analysis of economic and health inequality changes among Mexican indigenous people, 2000-2010.

INTRODUCTION: Mexico faces important problems concerning income and health inequity. Mexico's national public agenda prioritizes remedying current inequities between its indigenous and non-indigenous population groups. This study explores the changes in social inequalities among Mexico's indigenous and non-indigenous populations for the time period 2000 to 2010 using routinely collected poverty, welfare and health indicator data. METHODS: We described changes in socioeconomic indicators (housing condition), poverty (Foster-Greer-Thorbecke and Sen-Shorrocks-Sen indexes), health indicators (childhood stunting and infant mortality) using diverse sources of nationally representative data. RESULTS: This analysis provides consistent evidence of disparities in the Mexican indigenous population regarding both basic and crucial developmental indicators. Although developmental indicators have improved among the indigenous population, when we compare indigenous and non-indigenous people, the gap in socio-economic and developmental indicators persists. CONCLUSIONS: Despite a decade of efforts to promote public programs, poverty persists and is a particular burden for indigenous populations within Mexican society. In light of the results, it would be advisable to review public policy and to specifically target future policy to the needs of the indigenous population.

Socio-economic indicators, dietary patterns, and physical activity as determinants of maternal obesity in middle-income countries: Evidences from a cohort study in Mexico.

Maternal obesity is one of the main public health problems at a world level. It is a multifactorial disease with multiple causes, and few studies exist on its dietary patterns, physical activity and social determinants. This work aims to identify determinants of maternal obesity in a middle income country. Research is based on a prospective cohort design. Data were collected using questionnaires applied to pregnant women. Three dietary patterns were identified, and only half of the women carry out physical activity. The regression analysis showed an association between overweight/obesity and the following variables: age 25 to 29 years old (3.8; CI 1.6-9.0), 30 to 34 years old (3.7; CI 1.2-11.6); health problems during pregnancy (2.1; CI 1.0-4.1); socio-economic income (1.73; CI 1.54-2.05); hypertension (2.7; CI 1.4-4.5); mild food insecurity (1.9; CI 1.0-3.8); moderate insecurity (3.7; CI 0.92-15.4); refined food dietary pattern (.76; CI.61-.95). The risk of increasing BMI during pregnancy mainly depends on socioeconomic and demographic variables such as age, educational level, income, food insecurity, and dietary pattern. This study's results could be used as evidences for the revision, planning, and adjustment of interventions for the prevention and management of maternal obesity, as a part of the national strategies against overweight and obesity.

Improving access to health care for undocumented immigrants in the United States.

OBJECTIVE: To identify policies that increase access to health care for undocumented Mexican immigrants. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Four focus groups (n=34 participants) were conducted with uninsured Mexican immigrants in Los Angeles, California. The feasibility and desirability of different policy proposals for increasing access were discussed by each group. RESULTS: Respondents raised significant problems with policies including binational health insurance, expanded employer-provided health insurance, and telemedicine. The only solution with a consensus that the change would be feasible, result in improved access, and they had confidence in was expanded access to community health centers (CHC's). CONCLUSIONS: Given the limited access to most specialists at CHC's and the continued barriers to hospital care for those without health insurance, the most effective way of improving the complete range of health services to undocumented immigrants is through immigration reform that will bring these workers under the other health care reform provisions.

[Capacity of the legal framework of public health institutions in Mexico to support their functional integration]. / Capacidad del marco jurídico de las instituciones públicas de salud de México para apoyar la integración funcional.

OBJECTIVE: Evaluate the capacity of the federal legal framework to govern financing of health institutions in the public sector through innovative schemes--otherwise known as functional integration--, enabling them to purchase and sell health services to and from other public providers as a strategy to improve their performance. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Based on indicators of normative alignment with respect to functional integration across public health provider and governance institutions, content analysis was undertaken of national health programs and relevant laws and guidelines for financial coordination. RESULTS: Significant progress was identified in the implementation of agreements for the coordination of public institutions. While the legal framework provides for a National Health System and a health sector, gaps and contradictions limit their scope. The General Register of Health is also moving forward, yet it lacks the necessary legal foundation to become a comprehensive tool for integration. The medical service exchange agreements are also moving forward based on tariffs and shared guidelines. However, there is a lack of incentives to promote the expansion of these agreements. CONCLUSIONS: It is recommended to update the legal framework for the coordination of the National Health System, ensuring a more harmonious and general focus to provide functional integration with the needed impulse.

Health insurance for undocumented immigrants: opportunities and barriers on the Mexican side of the US border.

OBJECTIVE: This article aims to identify opportunities, barriers and challenges in Mexico's policy networks for the development of healthcare programs for undocumented migrants in the USA and their families. METHODS: We used policy analysis, in-depth interviews and a case study. Key stakeholders at the federal, state and municipal levels in one major migrant-sending state were interviewed. We also conducted an in-depth case study of one community to obtain the perceptions of local health workers, migrant families and local nongovernmental organizations. RESULTS: Findings identified opportunities and barriers involving the stakeholders, institutions, social interactions and types of relationships necessary for further progress on binational policies. There was wide interest in creating binational health insurance with different degrees of potential involvement by political actors and variation in local actors' willingness to be covered by some type of health insurance scheme. CONCLUSIONS: The use of the opportunities to overcome barriers depends on the identification of high, medium or low interaction among key stakeholders, integration of coalitions and negotiating skills of all stakeholders involved.

Determinantes de la inseguridad alimentaria y su asociación con prácticas de alimentación y lactancia materna en el primer año de vida.

OBJETIVO: analizar los determinantes de la Inseguridad Alimentaria (IA) y su relación con las Prácticas de Alimentación (PA) y las Prácticas de Lactancia Materna (PLM) en el primer año de vida. MÉTODOS: análisis de tipo cuantitativo sobre el binomio madre-hijo de una cohorte en México. Los datos de interés fueron el estado de seguridad alimentaria (SA), las PA y las PLM. Se desarrolló un modelo de regresión para evaluar determinantes asociados a la IA y un análisis de medias para determinar el impacto de la IA en las PA y las PLM. RESULTADOS: el 54.1% de hogares presentó algún grado de IA. Las madres con pareja (OR = 0.25; p = 0.05) y con escolaridad superior (OR = 0.50; p = 0.04) tuvieron menor riesgo de padecer IA. En contraste, los hogares con mujeres mayores de 25 años estuvieron más expuestos a la IA (OR = 3.0; p = 0.00). Los hogares con IA introducen alimentos no recomendados como dulces, galletas o pastelitos (p = 0.00) y bebidas no lácteas azucaradas (p = 0.05) de forma prematura.Conclusiones:la IA requiere mayor atención por sus efectos en las PA y las PLM, las cuales son consideradas como factores asociados al desarrollo de mala nutrición.

Global Health Diplomacy (GHD) and the integration of health into foreign policy: Towards a conceptual approach.

Since the end of the Cold War, health has gone from a peripheral concern in foreign policy negotiations to a prominent place on the global political agenda. While the rise of health onto the foreign policy agenda is by now old news, the driving forces behind its expansion into new political spheres remain understudied and undertheorized. This article builds on empirical findings from a four-country study of the integration of health into foreign policy, and proposes a conceptual approach to GHD to improve understanding of the conditions under which health is successfully positioned on the foreign policy agenda. Our approach consists of three dimensions: features of institutions and the interest various actors represent in GHD; the ideational environment in which GHD operates; and issue characteristics of the specific health concern entering foreign policy. Within each dimension, we identify specific variables that, in combination, make up the explanatory power of the proposed approach. The proposed approach does not relate to, or build upon, a single social sciences, public health, or international relations (IR) theory, but can be seen as a heuristic device to identify dimensions and variables that may shape why certain health issues rise onto the foreign policy agenda.

Social determinants of overweight and obesity in the mother-child binomial: evidences from Mexico.

BACKGROUND: To analyze the influence of socioeconomic determinants on the development of overweight and obesity in the mother-child binomial. METHODS: This is a study based on a prospective cohort of the mother-child binomial. Using STATA software, the association between the mothers' body mass index and the nutritional status of minors was analyzed using a logistic regression model with socioeconomic and demographic variables. RESULTS: The combined prevalence of overweight and obesity in cohort mothers was 53.2%. A statistically significant association was found between the overweight mothers and minors with possible risk of overweight (p 0.001) and with overweight (p 0.001). The logistic regression model was adjusted by age and marital status and linked maternal overweight and obesity with the following variables: severe food insecurity (RR 1.17, CI 0.04-0.31), having a health problem (RR 1.5, CI 0.86-2.05), income (RR 1.79, CI .49-1.30), smoking (RR 1.1, CI 0.80-1.37) and dietary pattern (RR 1.5, CI 0.38-0.87). CONCLUSIONS: The study highlights the importance of paying attention to risk factors starting at the gestational stage, since at this time the mother's nutritional status has an influence on the offspring's growth and development. Evidences exist of an association between intergenerational transmission of obesity and socioeconomic aspects of the mother. These evidences must be considered in the revision and adjustments to health system interventions for the prevention of obesity in the mother-child binomial.

Correction to: Social determinants of overweight and obesity in the mother-child binomial: evidences from Mexico.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1186/s13690-020-00422-1.].

The influence of the sugar-sweetened beverage industry on public policies in Mexico.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to map and describe the different corporate political activity (CPA) strategies used by the sugar-sweetened beverage (SSB) industry to influence public health policymaking geared toward decreasing the consumption of SSB in Mexico. METHODS: We applied an existing approach to identify and monitor the CPA of the SSB industry. A documentary analysis was conducted for two main actors in the SSB industry, for the period 2017-2019, and was triangulated with eleven semi-structured interviews with key informants in public health nutrition and from the SSB industry. The information was analyzed using an existing framework for categorizing the CPA. RESULTS: Although data were found for six CPA strategies, the SSB industry mainly highlighted its economic importance and spoke openly against the 2014 SSB tax. We documented the industry's relationships with governmental bodies and civil society actors to promote corporate social responsibility and gain public support. CONCLUSIONS: The SSB industry in Mexico uses a variety of strategies, directly or through third parties, to influence public policies related to the prevention and control of obesity and non-communicable diseases.

Trends and challenges in diabetes for middle-income countries: Evidence from Mexico.

The epidemiological and economic burden of diabetes poses one of the main challenges for health systems worldwide. This is particularly relevant in middle-income countries because of the constant growing trends that have been observed in recent years. In order to identify trends and challenges on epidemiological and economic burden from diabetes in a middle-income country we developed a longitudinal analysis on costs and trends in the number of cases of diabetes in Mexico. The study population included total annual cases of diabetes at national level. Regarding the annual cumulative incidence for 2016 versus 2018, depending on the institution there is an increase of 9-13% (p < 0.001). Comparing the economic burden from incidence in 2016 versus 2018 (p < 0.05), there is a 26% increase. The total amount for diabetes in 2017 (US dollars) was $9,684,780,574. It includes $ 4,292,085,964 in direct costs and $ 5,392,694,610 in indirect costs. The total direct costs are: $ 510,986,406 for uninsured population; $ 1,416,132,058 for insured population; $ 2,235,969,330 for users' pockets. This is an example of what is happening in the management of diabetes care in middle-income countries and we suggest review and rethinking strategies of prevention, planning, organisation and resource allocation.

Challenges on the epidemiological and economic burden of diabetes and hypertension in Mexico.

OBJECTIVE To analyze the epidemiological and economic burden of the health services demand due to diabetes and hypertension in Mexico. METHODS Evaluation study based on a time series study that had as a universe of study the assured and uninsured population that demands health services from the three main institutions of the Health System in Mexico: The Health Department, the Mexican Institute of Social Security, and Institute of Services and Social Security for State Workers. The financing method was based on instrumentation and consensus techniques for medium case management. In order to estimate the epidemiological changes and financial requirements, a time series of observed cases for diabetes and hypertension 1994-2013 was integrated. Probabilistic models were developed based on the Box-Jenkins technique for the period of 2013-2018 with 95% confidence intervals and p < 0.05. RESULTS Comparing results from 2013 versus 2018, in the five regions, different incremental trends of 14%-17% in epidemiological changes and 58%-66% in the economic burden for both diseases were observed. CONCLUSIONS If the risk factors and the different models of care remained as they currently are in the three institutions analyzed, the financial consequences would be of greater impact for the Mexican Institute of Social Security, following in order of importance the Institute of Services and Social Security for State Workers and lastly the Health Department. The financial needs for both diseases will represent approximately 13%-15% of the total budget allocated to the uninsured population and 15%-17% for the population insured depending on the region.

[Socioeconomic determinants of maternal obesity in Mexico and France. Comparative analysis of two cohorts]. / Indicadores socioeconómicos de la obesidad materna en México y Francia. Análisis comparado de dos cohortes.

OBJECTIVE: To identify and analyze the socioeconomic indicators of maternal obesity in Mexico and France. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Comparative study of two cohorts: EDEN (France) and NUTTSEA (Mexico). The study population consisted of women who requested prenatal consultation at week 24 of pregnancy. Data were collected using questionnaires and semi-structured interviews. The variables of interest were socioeconomic aspects, nutrition, anthropometry and food security. The quantitative analysis was performed using Stata and the qualitative analysis with Atlas-ti. RESULTS: In the EDEN cohort, 68.6% were aged 25-34 years, 73% had paid employment and 53% completed high school. In addition, 6.6% reported having difficulty accessing food and the mean gestational BMI was 23.23 ± 4.6. In the NUTTSEA cohort, 55% were in the age range 18-24 years, 15% reported having paid employment, 42% had completed secondary education, 32.1% presented a degree of food insecurity, and the mean BMI was 27.8 ± 4.8. CONCLUSIONS: The qualitative and quantitative results of both cohorts suggest that populations with greater socio-economic vulnerability are more prone to maternal obesity, which leads to determine guidelines on barriers and facilitators to strengthen programs to prevent it maternal obesity.

OBJETIVO: Identificar y analizar los indicadores socioeconómicos de obesidad materna en México y Francia. METODOLOGÍA: Estudio comparativo de dos cohortes EDEN sus siglas en francés (Etude des déterminants pré et post natals précoces de la santé et de développement de l'enfant) (Francia) y NUTTSEA (México). La población de estudio se conformó por mujeres que solicitaron consulta prenatal en semana 24 de gestación. Los datos fueron recolectados con cuestionarios y entrevistas semi-estructuradas. Las variables de interés fueron aspectos socioeconómicos, alimentación, antropometría y seguridad alimentaria. El análisis cuantitativo se realizó utilizando Stata y el análisis cualitativo con Atlas-ti. RESULTADOS: En cohorte EDEN el 68.6% resultó con edad de 25-34 años, el 73% tenían un empleo remunerado, el 53% preparatoria completa; el 6.6% refirió tener dificultad para acceder a los alimentos; la media del IMC gestacional fue de 23.23±4.6. En la cohorte NUTTSEA el 55% se encontraba en el rango de edad de 18-24 años; el 15% refirió contar con un empleo remunerado; el 42% de la población tenía secundaria completa; el 32.1% presentó un grado de inseguridad alimentaria; la media de IMC fue de 27.8±4.8. CONCLUSIONES: Los resultados cuali-cuantitativos de ambas cohortes sugieren que poblaciones con mayor vulnerabilidad socio-económica son más propensas a la obesidad materna, determinando directrices sobre barreras y facilitadores para fortalecer programas de prevención de la obesidad materna.

Effects of health decentralization, financing and governance in Mexico.

OBJECTIVE: To identify the effects of decentralization on health financing and governance policies in Mexico from the perspective of users and providers. METHODS: A cross-sectional study was carried out in four states that were selected according to geopolitical and administrative criteria. Four indicators were assessed: changes and effects on governance, financing sources and funds, the final destination of resources, and fund allocation mechanisms. Data collection was performed using in-depth interviews with health system key personnel and community leaders, consensus techniques and document analyses. The interviews were transcribed and analyzed by thematic segmentation. RESULTS: The results show different effectiveness levels for the four states regarding changes in financing policies and community participation. Effects on health financing after decentralization were identified in each state, including: greater participation of municipal and state governments in health expenditure, increased financial participation of households, greater community participation in low-income states, duality and confusion in the new mechanisms for coordination among the three government levels, absence of an accountability system, lack of human resources and technical skills to implement, monitor and evaluate changes in financing. CONCLUSIONS: In general, positive and negative effects of decentralization on health financing and governance were identified. The effects mentioned by health service providers and users were related to a diversification of financing sources, a greater margin for decisions around the use and final destination of financial resources and normative development for the use of resources. At the community level, direct financial contributions were mentioned, as well as in-kind contributions, particularly in the form of community work.

Breastfeeding and feeding practices in the first year of life and its association with overweight and obesity of children in Mexico / Prácticas de lactancia y alimentación en el primer año de vida y su asociación con sobrepeso y obesidad de niños en México

Abstract Objectives: to evaluate feeding practices in the first year of life and their association with the development of overweight and obesity in children in Mexico. Methods: the association between overweight and obesity with different feeding practices were evaluated. The data was processed using the statistical package Stata version 14 using logistic regression models. Results: 396 children were evaluated; the prevalence of overweight and obesity was 6% and 7.7% presented a possible risk of overweight. 6.9% had exclusive breastfeeding in the first 6 months of life and 71.7% were fed infant formula. The variables significantly associated with the development of overweight and obesity in the first year of life were the age of the child (p =0.043, RR=0.57), the introduction of fluids in the first three days of life (p=0.02, RR=2.90), consumption of foods with a high sugar content (p =0.01, RR=0.25), consumption of milk other than breast (p =0.02, RR3.25) and egg consumption (p =0.05; RR=0.28). Conclusions: our results show that it is essential to attend complementary feeding practices and reinforce exclusive breastfeeding in the first year of life, as measures to prevent overweight and obesity to improve health in childhood.

Resumen Objetivos: evaluar las prácticas de lactancia y alimentación en el primer año de vida y su asociación con desarrollo del sobrepeso y obesidad de niños en México. Métodos: estudio transversal, analítico, y explicativo, se evaluó la asociación entre sobrepeso y obesidad con las distintas prácticas de alimentación en menores de un año de edad. Resultados: se evaluaron 396 menores, la prevalencia de sobrepeso y obesidad fue de 6% y 7.7% presentaba posible riesgo de sobrepeso. El 6.9% tuvo lactancia materna exclusiva en los primeros 6 meses de vida; 71.7% fueron alimentados con fórmula infantil. Las variables asociadas significativamente con el desarrollo de sobrepeso y obesidad en el primer año de vida fueron: la edad del menor (p =0.043; RR=0.57), introducción de líquidos en los tres primeros días de vida (p=0.02; RR=2.90), consumo de alimentos con alto contenido de azúcar (p = 0.01; RR=0.25), consumo de leches distintas al pecho (p = 0.02; RR=3.25) y consumo de huevo (p =0.05; RR=0.28). Conclusiones: nuestros resultados muestran que es fundamental atender las prácticas de alimentación complementaria y reforzar la lactancia materna exclusiva en el primer año de vida, como medidas de prevención del sobrepeso y obesidad para mejorar la salud en la infancia.

[Impact of decentralization on health financing in Mexico]. / Efectos de la descentralización en el financiamiento de la salud en México.

OBJECTIVE: To identify trends and to describe the impact of health care decentralization on health financing policies in Mexico. METHODS: The study population comprised four states selected according with six technical criteria: socioeconomic development, implementation of decentralization process, database on economical features, data consistency and reliability, and technical support from a multidisciplinary team. In-depth interviews with key personnel as well as analysis of technical reports of state budgets for health in the period 1990-2000 were conducted. RESULTS: The analysis model applied allowed to determine the trends and the impact of health care decentralization on main financing sources: householders, and federal, state and municipal governments. There was evidence of different change effectiveness, especially regarding trends of financing per source. CONCLUSIONS: There are states where householders and state and municipal governments effectively increased financing support for health care system. But there are also states where householders and state and municipal governments do not agree on the increase of financing support for health care system.

Indicadores socioeconómicos de obesidad materna. El estudio de una cohorte en Morelos, México / Socioeconomic indicators of maternal obesity. Study of a cohort in Morelos, México / Indicadores socioeconómicos da obesidade materna. Estudo de uma coorte no Morelos, México / Indicateurs socio-économiques de l'obésité maternelle. Étude d'une cohorte au Morelos, Mexique

Resumen: Objetivo: Identificar y analizar desde una perspectiva cuanti/cualitativita los indicadores socioeconómicos de la obesidad materna en México. Material y métodos: Investigación evaluativa basada en un diseño de cohorte de tipo prospectivo/descriptivo. El tamaño de la muestra se conformó por todas las mujeres que llegaron a consulta prenatal a partir de la semana 24 de gestación en un hospital de referencia estatal. El tamaño de la muestra se estimó con un 80% de poder y 95% de confianza y significancia. Los indicadores de interés fueron aspectos socioeconómicos, alimentación, antropometría, dieta, seguridad alimentaria y actividad física. El análisis cuantitativo se realizó utilizando el software Stata versión 14 y el análisis cualitativo con Atlas-ti versión 8.0. Resultados: La cohorte estuvo conformada por 402 mujeres embarazadas en 2017. De los resultados principales encontramos que el 55% de las mujeres se encontraba en el rango de edad de 18-24 años; el 15% de las mujeres refirió contar con un empleo remunerado; el 42% de la población tenía secundaria completa; el 32.1% presentó un grado de inseguridad alimentaria; la media de IMC fue de 27.8±4.8, el 48% de las mujeres presentaron sobrepeso y obesidad. Conclusiones: Los resultados cuantitativos sugieren que poblaciones con mayor vulnerabilidad socio-económica, inseguridad alimentaria y escasa actividad física, son más propensas a la obesidad materna. Los resultados cualitativos, además de complementar y reforzar los resultados cuantitativos, plantean evidencias para identificar a mayor detalle las barreras y facilitadores para fortalecer programas de intervención en la prevención de la obesidad materna.

Abstract; Objective: To identify and analyze from a quantitative / qualitative perspective the socioeconomic indicators of maternal obesity in Mexico. Methods and material: Evaluative research based on a prospective / analytical cohort design. The sample size was established by all the women who came to the antenatal clinic from the 24th week of gestation in a state referral hospital. The sample size was estimated with 80% power and 95% confidence and significance. The indicators of interest were socioeconomic aspects, nutrition, anthropometry, diet, food safety and physical activity. The quantitative analysis was performed using the Stata version 14 software and the qualitative analysis with Atlas-ti version 8.0. Results: The cohort was comprised of 402 pregnant women in 2017. From the main results we found that 55% of the women were in the age range of 18-24 years; 15% of women reported having a paid job; 42% of the population had full secondary education; 32.1% presented a degree of food insecurity; the mean BMI was 27.8 ± 4.8, 48% of the women were overweight and obese. Conclusions: Quantitative results suggest that populations with greater socio-economic vulnerability, food insecurity and low physical activity are more prone to maternal obesity. The qualitative results, besides complementing and reinforcing the quantitative results, present evidence to identify in greater detail the barriers and facilitators to strengthen intervention programs in the prevention of maternal obesity.

Resumo: Objetivo: Identificar e analisar, de uma perspectiva quantitativa / qualitativa, os indicadores socioeconômicos da obesidade materna no México. Materiais e métodos: Pesquisa avaliativa baseada em um desenho de coorte prospectivo / analítico. O tamanho da amostra foi estabelecido por todas as mulheres que chegaram à clínica pré-natal a partir da 24a semana de gestação em um hospital estadual de referência. O tamanho da amostra foi estimado com 80% de poder e 95% de confiança e significância. Os indicadores de interesse foram aspectos socioeconómicos, nutrição, antropometria, dieta, segurança alimentar e atividade física. A análise quantitativa foi realizada utilizando o software Stata versão 14 e a análise qualitativa com Atlas-ti versão 8.0. Resultados: A coorte foi composta por 402 gestantes em 2017. Dos principais resultados, constatou-se que 55% das mulheres encontravam- se na faixa etária de 18 a 24 anos; 15% das mulheres relataram ter um emprego remunerado; 42% da população tinha ensino secundário completo; 32,1% apresentaram grau de insegurança alimentar; a média do IMC foi de 27,8 ± 4,8, 48% das mulheres estavam acima do peso e obesas. Conclusões: Os resultados quantitativos sugerem que populações com maior vulnerabilidade socioeconómica, insegurança alimentar e baixa atividade física são mais propensas à obesidade materna. Os resultados qualitativos, além de complementar e reforjar os resultados quantitativos, apresentam evidencias para identificar em maior detalhe as barreiras e facilitadores para fortalecer os programas de intervenção na prevenção da obesidade materna.

Résumé: Objectif: Identifier et analyser d'un point de vue quantitatif / qualitatif les indicateurs socio-économiques de l'obésité maternelle au Mexique. Matériel et méthodes: Recherche évaluative basée sur une conception de cohorte prospective / analytique. La taille de l'échantillon a été établie par toutes les femmes qui sont venues á la clinique prénatale á partir de la 24e semaine de gestation dans un hópital de référence. La taille de l'échantillon a été estimée avec 80% de puissance et 95% de confiance et de signification. Les indicateurs d'intéret étaient les aspects socio-économiques, la nutrition, l'anthropométrie, l'alimentation, la sécurité alimentaire et l'activité physique. L'analyse quantitative a été réalisée á l'aide du logiciel Stata version 14 et de l'analyse qualitative avec Atlas-ti version 8.0. Résultats: La cohorte était composée de 402 femmes enceintes en 2017. D'aprés les principaux résultats, nous avons constaté que 55% des femmes étaient agées de 18 á 24 ans; 15% des femmes ont déclaré avoir un travail rémunéré; 42% de la population ont fait des études secondaires complétes; 32,1% présentaient un degré d'insécurité alimentaire; l'IMC moyen était de 27,8 ± 4,8, 48% des femmes étaient en surpoids et obéses. Conclusions: Les résultats quantitatifs suggérent que les populations ayant une plus grande vulnérabilité socio-économique, l'insécurité alimentaire et une faible activité physique sont plus sujettes á l'obésité maternelle. Les résultats qualitatifs, en plus de compléter et de renforcer les résultats quantitatifs, présentent des preuves pour identifier plus en détail les obstacles et les facilitateurs pour renforcer les programmes d'intervention dans la prévention de l'obésité maternelle.

Challenges on the epidemiological and economic burden of diabetes and hypertension in Mexico / Retos sobre la carga epidemiológica y económica para diabetes e hipertensión en México

ABSTRACT OBJECTIVE To analyze the epidemiological and economic burden of the health services demand due to diabetes and hypertension in Mexico. METHODS Evaluation study based on a time series study that had as a universe of study the assured and uninsured population that demands health services from the three main institutions of the Health System in Mexico: The Health Department, the Mexican Institute of Social Security, and Institute of Services and Social Security for State Workers. The financing method was based on instrumentation and consensus techniques for medium case management. In order to estimate the epidemiological changes and financial requirements, a time series of observed cases for diabetes and hypertension 1994-2013 was integrated. Probabilistic models were developed based on the Box-Jenkins technique for the period of 2013-2018 with 95% confidence intervals and p < 0.05. RESULTS Comparing results from 2013 versus 2018, in the five regions, different incremental trends of 14%-17% in epidemiological changes and 58%-66% in the economic burden for both diseases were observed. CONCLUSIONS If the risk factors and the different models of care remained as they currently are in the three institutions analyzed, the financial consequences would be of greater impact for the Mexican Institute of Social Security, following in order of importance the Institute of Services and Social Security for State Workers and lastly the Health Department. The financial needs for both diseases will represent approximately 13%-15% of the total budget allocated to the uninsured population and 15%-17% for the population insured depending on the region.

RESUMEN OBJETIVO Analizar la carga epidemiológica y económica de la demanda de servicios de salud por diabetes e hipertensión en México. MÉTODOS Investigación evaluativa basada en un estudio de series de tiempo que tomó como universo de estudio la población asegurada y no asegurada que demanda servicios de salud a las tres principales instituciones del Sistema de Salud en México: Secretaría de Salud, Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social, e Instituto de Servicios y Seguridad Social para los Trabajadores del Estado. El método de costeo tomó como base las técnicas de instrumentación y de consenso por manejo de caso promedio. Para estimar los cambios epidemiológicos y requerimientos financieros, se integró una serie de tiempos de casos observados para diabetes e hipertensión 1994-2013. Se desarrollaron modelos probabilísticos basados en la técnica de Box-Jenkins para el periodo 2013-2018 con intervalos del 95% de confianza y p < 0.05. RESULTADOS Comparando resultados de 2013 versus 2018, en las cinco regiones, se observaron diferentes tendencias incrementales de 14%-17% en cambios epidemiológicos y de 58%-66% en la carga económica para ambas enfermedades. CONCLUSIONES Si los factores de riesgo y los diferentes modelos de atención permanecieran como están actualmente en las tres instituciones de análisis, las consecuencias financieras serían de mayor impacto para el Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social, siguiendo en orden de importancia el Instituto de Servicios y Seguridad Social para los Trabajadores del Estado y finalmente para la Secretaría de Salud. Los requerimientos financieros para ambas enfermedades representarán aproximadamente del 13%-15% del presupuesto total asignado para población no asegurada y el 15%-17% para población asegurada dependiendo de la región.

Indicadores socioeconómicos de la obesidad materna en México y Francia: análisis comparado de dos cohortes / Socioeconomic determinants of maternal obesity in Mexico and France: comparative analysis of two cohorts

RESUMEN Objetivo Identificar y analizar los indicadores socioeconómicos de obesidad materna en México y Francia. Metodología Estudio comparativo de dos cohortes EDEN sus siglas en francés (Etude des déterminants pré et post natals précoces de la santé et de développement de l'enfant) (Francia) y NUTTSEA (México). La población de estudio se conformó por mujeres que solicitaron consulta prenatal en semana 24 de gestación. Los datos fueron recolectados con cuestionarios y entrevistas semi-estructuradas. Las variables de interés fueron aspectos socioeconómicos, alimentación, antropometría y seguridad alimentaria. El análisis cuantitativo se realizó utilizando Stata y el análisis cualitativo con Atlas-ti. Resultados En cohorte EDEN el 68.6% resultó con edad de 25-34 años, el 73% tenían un empleo remunerado, el 53% preparatoria completa; el 6.6% refirió tener dificultad para acceder a los alimentos; la media del IMC gestacional fue de 23.23±4.6. En la cohorte NUTTSEA el 55% se encontraba en el rango de edad de 18-24 años; el 15% refirió contar con un empleo remunerado; el 42% de la población tenía secundaria completa; el 32.1% presentó un grado de inseguridad alimentaria; la media de IMC fue de 27.8±4.8. Conclusiones Los resultados cuali-cuantitativos de ambas cohortes sugieren que poblaciones con mayor vulnerabilidad socio-económica son más propensas a la obesidad materna, determinando directrices sobre barreras y facilitadores para fortalecer programas de prevención de la obesidad materna.(AU)

ABSTRACT Objective To identify and analyze the socioeconomic indicators of maternal obesity in Mexico and France. Material and Methods Comparative study of two cohorts: EDEN (France) and NUTTSEA (Mexico). The study population consisted of women who requested prenatal consultation at week 24 of pregnancy. Data were collected using questionnaires and semi-structured interviews. The variables of interest were socioeconomic aspects, nutrition, anthropometry and food security. The quantitative analysis was performed using Stata and the qualitative analysis with Atlas-ti. Results In the EDEN cohort, 68.6% were aged 25-34 years, 73% had paid employment and 53% completed high school. In addition, 6.6% reported having difficulty accessing food and the mean gestational BMI was 23.23 ± 4.6. In the NUTTSEA cohort, 55% were in the age range 18-24 years, 15% reported having paid employment, 42% had completed secondary education, 32.1% presented a degree of food insecurity, and the mean BMI was 27.8 ± 4.8. Conclusions The qualitative and quantitative results of both cohorts suggest that populations with greater socio-economic vulnerability are more prone to maternal obesity, which leads to determine guidelines on barriers and facilitators to strengthen programs to prevent it maternal obesity.(AU)