Inhibitory CD161 receptor identified in glioma-infiltrating T cells by single-cell analysis.

T cells are critical effectors of cancer immunotherapies, but little is known about their gene expression programs in diffuse gliomas. Here, we leverage single-cell RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) to chart the gene expression and clonal landscape of tumor-infiltrating T cells across 31 patients with isocitrate dehydrogenase (IDH) wild-type glioblastoma and IDH mutant glioma. We identify potential effectors of anti-tumor immunity in subsets of T cells that co-express cytotoxic programs and several natural killer (NK) cell genes. Analysis of clonally expanded tumor-infiltrating T cells further identifies the NK gene KLRB1 (encoding CD161) as a candidate inhibitory receptor. Accordingly, genetic inactivation of KLRB1 or antibody-mediated CD161 blockade enhances T cell-mediated killing of glioma cells in vitro and their anti-tumor function in vivo. KLRB1 and its associated transcriptional program are also expressed by substantial T cell populations in other human cancers. Our work provides an atlas of T cells in gliomas and highlights CD161 and other NK cell receptors as immunotherapy targets.

Aurora A kinase inhibition induces accumulation of SCLC tumor cells in mitosis with restored interferon signaling to increase response to PD-L1.

Despite small cell lung cancers (SCLCs) having a high mutational burden, programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) immunotherapy only modestly increases survival. A subset of SCLCs that lose their ASCL1 neuroendocrine phenotype and restore innate immune signaling (termed the "inflammatory" subtype) have durable responses to PD-L1. Some SCLCs are highly sensitive to Aurora kinase inhibitors, but early-phase trials show short-lived responses, suggesting effective therapeutic combinations are needed to increase their durability. Using immunocompetent SCLC genetically engineered mouse models (GEMMs) and syngeneic xenografts, we show durable efficacy with the combination of a highly specific Aurora A kinase inhibitor (LSN3321213) and PD-L1. LSN3321213 causes accumulation of tumor cells in mitosis with lower ASCL1 expression and higher expression of interferon target genes and antigen-presentation genes mimicking the inflammatory subtype in a cell-cycle-dependent manner. These data demonstrate that inflammatory gene expression is restored in mitosis in SCLC, which can be exploited by Aurora A kinase inhibition.

A Novel HER2-Selective Kinase Inhibitor Is Effective in HER2 Mutant and Amplified Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer.

In-frame insertions in exon 20 of HER2 are the most common HER2 mutations in patients with non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), a disease in which approved EGFR/HER2 tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKI) display poor efficiency and undesirable side effects due to their strong inhibition of wild-type (WT) EGFR. Here, we report a HER2-selective covalent TKI, JBJ-08-178-01, that targets multiple HER2 activating mutations, including exon 20 insertions as well as amplification. JBJ-08-178-01 displayed strong selectivity toward HER2 mutants over WT EGFR compared with other EGFR/HER2 TKIs. Determination of the crystal structure of HER2 in complex with JBJ-08-178-01 suggests that an interaction between the inhibitor and Ser783 may be responsible for HER2 selectivity. The compound showed strong antitumoral activity in HER2-mutant or amplified cancers in vitro and in vivo. Treatment with JBJ-08-178-01 also led to a reduction in total HER2 by promoting proteasomal degradation of the receptor. Taken together, the dual activity of JBJ-08-178-01 as a selective inhibitor and destabilizer of HER2 represents a combination that may lead to better efficacy and tolerance in patients with NSCLC harboring HER2 genetic alterations or amplification. SIGNIFICANCE: This study describes unique mechanisms of action of a new mutant-selective HER2 kinase inhibitor that reduces both kinase activity and protein levels of HER2 in lung cancer.

An allosteric inhibitor against the therapy-resistant mutant forms of EGFR in non-small cell lung cancer.

Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) therapy using small-molecule tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) is initially efficacious in patients with EGFR-mutant lung cancer, although drug resistance eventually develops. Allosteric EGFR inhibitors, which bind to a different EGFR site than existing ATP-competitive EGFR TKIs, have been developed as a strategy to overcome therapy-resistant EGFR mutations. Here we identify and characterize JBJ-09-063, a mutant-selective allosteric EGFR inhibitor that is effective across EGFR TKI-sensitive and resistant models, including those with EGFR T790M and C797S mutations. We further uncover that EGFR homo- or heterodimerization with other ERBB family members, as well as the EGFR L747S mutation, confers resistance to JBJ-09-063, but not to ATP-competitive EGFR TKIs. Overall, our studies highlight the potential clinical utility of JBJ-09-063 as a single agent or in combination with EGFR TKIs to define more effective strategies to treat EGFR-mutant lung cancer.

Concurrent Dexamethasone Limits the Clinical Benefit of Immune Checkpoint Blockade in Glioblastoma.

PURPOSE: Dexamethasone, a uniquely potent corticosteroid, is frequently administered to patients with brain tumors to decrease tumor-associated edema, but limited data exist describing how dexamethasone affects the immune system systemically and intratumorally in patients with glioblastoma (GBM), particularly in the context of immunotherapy. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: We evaluated the dose-dependent effects of dexamethasone when administered with programmed cell death 1 (PD-1) blockade and/or radiotherapy in immunocompetent C57BL/6 mice with syngeneic GL261 and CT-2A GBM tumors. Clinically, the effect of dexamethasone on survival was evaluated in 181 patients with isocitrate dehydrogenase (IDH) wild-type GBM treated with PD-(L)1 blockade, with adjustment for relevant prognostic factors. RESULTS: Despite the inherent responsiveness of GL261 to immune checkpoint blockade, concurrent dexamethasone administration with anti-PD-1 therapy reduced survival in a dose-dependent manner. Concurrent dexamethasone also abrogated survival following anti-PD-1 therapy with or without radiotherapy in immune-resistant CT-2A models. Dexamethasone decreased T-lymphocyte numbers by increasing apoptosis, in addition to decreasing lymphocyte functional capacity. Myeloid and natural killer cell populations were also generally reduced by dexamethasone. Thus, dexamethasone appears to negatively affect both adaptive and innate immune responses. As a clinical correlate, a retrospective analysis of 181 consecutive patients with IDH wild-type GBM treated with PD-(L)1 blockade revealed poorer survival among those on baseline dexamethasone. Upon multivariable adjustment with relevant prognostic factors, baseline dexamethasone administration was the strongest predictor of poor survival [reference, no dexamethasone; <2 mg HR, 2.16; 95% confidence interval (CI), 1.30-3.68; P = 0.003 and ≥2 mg HR, 1.97; 95% CI, 1.23-3.16; P = 0.005]. CONCLUSIONS: Our preclinical and clinical data indicate that concurrent dexamethasone therapy may be detrimental to immunotherapeutic approaches for patients with GBM.

Oncogenic switch and single-agent MET inhibitor sensitivity in a subset of EGFR-mutant lung cancer.

The clinical efficacy of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR)­targeted therapy in EGFR-mutant non­small cell lung cancer is limited by the development of drug resistance. One mechanism of EGFR inhibitor resistance occurs through amplification of the human growth factor receptor (MET) proto-oncogene, which bypasses EGFR to reactivate downstream signaling. Tumors exhibiting concurrent EGFR mutation and MET amplification are historically thought to be codependent on the activation of both oncogenes. Hence, patients whose tumors harbor both alterations are commonly treated with a combination of EGFR and MET tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs). Here, we identify and characterize six patient-derived models of EGFR-mutant, MET-amplified lung cancer that have switched oncogene dependence to rely exclusively on MET activation for survival. We demonstrate in this MET-driven subset of EGFR TKI-refractory cancers that canonical EGFR downstream signaling was governed by MET, even in the presence of sustained mutant EGFR expression and activation. In these models, combined EGFR and MET inhibition did not result in greater efficacy in vitro or in vivo compared to single-agent MET inhibition. We further identified a reduced EGFR:MET mRNA expression stoichiometry as associated with MET oncogene dependence and single-agent MET TKI sensitivity. Tumors from 10 of 11 EGFR inhibitor­resistant EGFR-mutant, MET-amplified patients also exhibited a reduced EGFR:MET mRNA ratio. Our findings reveal that a subset of EGFR-mutant, MET-amplified lung cancers develop dependence on MET activation alone, suggesting that such patients could be treated with a single-agent MET TKI rather than the current standard-of-care EGFR and MET inhibitor combination regimens.

Intrinsic Immunogenicity of Small Cell Lung Carcinoma Revealed by Its Cellular Plasticity.

Small cell lung carcinoma (SCLC) is highly mutated, yet durable response to immune checkpoint blockade (ICB) is rare. SCLC also exhibits cellular plasticity, which could influence its immunobiology. Here we discover that a distinct subset of SCLC uniquely upregulates MHC I, enriching for durable ICB benefit. In vitro modeling confirms epigenetic recovery of MHC I in SCLC following loss of neuroendocrine differentiation, which tracks with derepression of STING. Transient EZH2 inhibition expands these nonneuroendocrine cells, which display intrinsic innate immune signaling and basally restored antigen presentation. Consistent with these findings, murine nonneuroendocrine SCLC tumors are rejected in a syngeneic model, with clonal expansion of immunodominant effector CD8 T cells. Therapeutically, EZH2 inhibition followed by STING agonism enhances T-cell recognition and rejection of SCLC in mice. Together, these data identify MHC I as a novel biomarker of SCLC immune responsiveness and suggest novel immunotherapeutic approaches to co-opt SCLC's intrinsic immunogenicity. SIGNIFICANCE: SCLC is poorly immunogenic, displaying modest ICB responsiveness with rare durable activity. In profiling its plasticity, we uncover intrinsically immunogenic MHC Ihi subpopulations of nonneuroendocrine SCLC associated with durable ICB benefit. We also find that combined EZH2 inhibition and STING agonism uncovers this cell state, priming cells for immune rejection.This article is highlighted in the In This Issue feature, p. 1861.

Inhibitors of the Transcription Factor STAT3 Decrease Growth and Induce Immune Response Genes in Models of Malignant Pleural Mesothelioma (MPM).

Malignant pleural mesothelioma (MPM) is an aggressive cancer defined by loss-of-function mutations with few therapeutic options. We examined the contribution of the transcription factor Signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) to cell growth and gene expression in preclinical models of MPM. STAT3 is activated in a variety of tumors and is thought to be required for the maintenance of cancer stem cells. Targeting STAT3 using specific small hairpin RNAs (shRNAs) or with the pharmacologic inhibitors atovaquone or pyrimethamine efficiently reduced cell growth in established cell lines and primary-derived lines while showing minimal effects in nontransformed LP9 mesothelial cells. Moreover, atovaquone significantly reduced viability and tumor growth in microfluidic cultures of primary MPM as well as in an in vivo xenotransplant model. Biological changes were linked to modulation of gene expression associated with STAT3 signaling, including cell cycle progression and altered p53 response. Reflecting the role of STAT3 in inducing localized immune suppression, using both atovaquone and pyrimethamine resulted in the modulation of immunoregulatory genes predicted to enhance an immune response, including upregulation of ICOSLG (Inducible T-Cell Costimulator Ligand or B7H2). Thus, our data strongly support a role for STAT3 inhibitors as anti-MPM therapeutics.