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The analysis of extracellular vesicles (EVs) as a source of cancer biomarkers is an emerging field since low-invasive biomarkers are highly demanded. EVs constitute a heterogeneous population of small membrane-contained vesicles that are present in most of body fluids. They are released by all cell types, including cancer cells and their cargo consists of nucleic acids, proteins and metabolites and varies depending on the biological-pathological state of the secretory cell. Therefore, EVs are considered as a potential source of reliable biomarkers for cancer. EV biomarkers in liquid biopsy can be a valuable tool to complement current medical technologies for cancer diagnosis, as their sampling is minimally invasive and can be repeated over time to monitor disease progression. In this review, we highlight the advances in EV biomarker research for cancer diagnosis, prognosis, and therapy monitoring. We especially focus on EV derived biomarkers for glioblastoma. The diagnosis and monitoring of glioblastoma still relies on imaging techniques, which are not sufficient to reflect the highly heterogenous and invasive nature of glioblastoma. Therefore, we discuss how the use of EV biomarkers could overcome the challenges faced in diagnosis and monitoring of glioblastoma.
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Vesículas Extracelulares , Glioblastoma , Humanos , Glioblastoma/diagnóstico , Glioblastoma/genética , Glioblastoma/metabolismo , Vesículas Extracelulares/genética , Vesículas Extracelulares/metabolismo , Biópsia Líquida/métodos , Biomarcadores Tumorais/metabolismo , PrognósticoRESUMO
Circulating cell-free nucleic acids are considered a promising source of biomarkers for diseases and cancer. Liquid biopsy biomarkers for brain tumours represent a major, still unmet, clinical need. In plasma, nucleic acids can be free or be associated with extracellular vesicles (EVs). Here we report an easy and reproducible method to analyse cell-free nucleic acids in plasma and EVs by conventional flow cytometry easy to translate into the clinics. Nucleic acids associated with the EVs or present in plasma samples are stained by Pyronin Y, which is a fluorescent dye that is preferably binding double-stranded nucleic acids. Fluorescent staining of EVs isolated from cell-conditioned media is suitable for DNA and RNA detection by flow cytometry. The nucleic acids are partially protected from degradation by the EVs' membrane. Additionally, DNA and RNA can be stained in plasma samples and plasma-derived EVs. Remarkably, analysis of plasma from patients and healthy individuals reveals a difference in their nucleic acid profiles. Taken together, our results indicate that the proposed methodology, which is based on conventional direct flow cytometry, is a promising easy tool for plasma nucleic acid analysis.
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INTRODUCTION: The heat shock protein 90 (Hsp90) is a protein involved in many different biological processes and especially in cell survival. Some of these functions require the participation of other biological molecules, so Hsp90 is a chaperone that takes part in many protein-protein interactions working as a critical signaling hub protein. As a member of the heat shock protein family, Hsp90 expression is regulated under certain environmental and/or stressful situations, therefore Hsp90 concentration can be monitored and linked to these effects. AREAS COVERED: This review discusses the Hsp90 expression in samples from individuals affected by different diseases (from infectious to cancer origin), and the biological consequences of these disorders, including the potential use of Hsp90 as a biomarker for the diagnosis of human diseases. EXPERT OPINION: The potential of Hsp90 as a biomarker disease has been demonstrated in several studies in relation to infectious diseases and especially cancer. However, further research in this field is still needed, mainly to validate in statistically significant clinical studies that the detection of Hsp90 protein allows the diagnosis of some cancers at an early stage and also that it can act as a biomarker for monitoring the efficacy of their therapies.
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During cytokinesis, a contractile ring consisting of unbranched filamentous actin (F-actin) and myosin II constricts at the cell equator. Unbranched F-actin is generated by formin, and without formin no cleavage furrow forms. In Caenorhabditis elegans, depletion of septin restores furrow ingression in formin mutants. How the cleavage furrow ingresses without a detectable unbranched F-actin ring is unknown. We report that, in this setting, anillin (ANI-1) forms a meshwork of circumferentially aligned linear structures decorated by non-muscle myosin II (NMY-2). Analysis of ANI-1 deletion mutants reveals that its disordered N-terminal half is required for linear structure formation and sufficient for furrow ingression. NMY-2 promotes the circumferential alignment of the linear ANI-1 structures and interacts with various lipids, suggesting that NMY-2 links the ANI-1 network with the plasma membrane. Collectively, our data reveal a compensatory mechanism, mediated by ANI-1 linear structures and membrane-bound NMY-2, that promotes furrowing when unbranched F-actin polymerization is compromised.
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Actinas , Proteínas de Caenorhabditis elegans , Proteínas Contráteis , Animais , Actinas/metabolismo , Septinas/genética , Septinas/metabolismo , Forminas/metabolismo , Citocinese/fisiologia , Membrana Celular/metabolismo , Caenorhabditis elegans/metabolismo , Miosina Tipo II/metabolismo , Proteínas dos Microfilamentos/genética , Proteínas dos Microfilamentos/metabolismo , Proteínas de Caenorhabditis elegans/genética , Proteínas de Caenorhabditis elegans/metabolismoRESUMO
Maintaining organelle function in the face of stress is known to involve organelle-specific retrograde signaling. Using Caenorhabditis elegans, we present evidence of the existence of such retrograde signaling for peroxisomes, which we define as the peroxisomal retrograde signaling (PRS). Specifically, we show that peroxisomal import stress caused by knockdown of the peroxisomal matrix import receptor prx-5/PEX5 triggers NHR-49/peroxisome proliferator activated receptor alpha (PPARα)- and MDT-15/MED15-dependent upregulation of the peroxisomal Lon protease lonp-2/LONP2 and the peroxisomal catalase ctl-2/CAT. Using proteomic and transcriptomic analyses, we show that proteins involved in peroxisomal lipid metabolism and immunity are also upregulated upon prx-5(RNAi). While the PRS can be triggered by perturbation of peroxisomal ß-oxidation, we also observed hallmarks of PRS activation upon infection with Pseudomonas aeruginosa. We propose that the PRS, in addition to a role in lipid metabolism homeostasis, may act as a surveillance mechanism to protect against pathogens.
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Peroxissomos/metabolismo , Animais , Caenorhabditis elegans , Transdução de SinaisRESUMO
The induction of the mitochondrial unfolded protein response (UPRmt) results in increased transcription of the gene encoding the mitochondrial chaperone HSP70. We systematically screened the C. elegans genome and identified 171 genes that, when knocked down, induce the expression of an hsp-6 HSP70 reporter and encode mitochondrial proteins. These genes represent many, but not all, mitochondrial processes (e.g., mitochondrial calcium homeostasis and mitophagy are not represented). Knockdown of these genes leads to reduced mitochondrial membrane potential and, hence, decreased protein import into mitochondria. In addition, it induces UPRmt in a manner that is dependent on ATFS-1 but that is not antagonized by the kinase GCN-2. We propose that compromised mitochondrial protein import signals the induction of UPRmt and that the mitochondrial targeting sequence of ATFS-1 functions as a sensor for this signal.