Proposed attributes of national wildlife health programmes.

Wildlife health is important for conservation, healthy ecosystems, sustainable development and biosecurity. It presents unique challenges for national programme governance and delivery because wildlife health not only crosses jurisdictional responsibilities and authorities but also inherently spans multiple sectors of expertise. The World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) encourages its Members to have wildlife disease monitoring and notification systems. Where national wildlife health surveillance programmes do exist, they vary in scope and size. Evidence-based guidance is lacking on the critical functions and roles needed to meet the OIE's recommendations and other expectations of a national programme. A literature review and consultation with national wildlife health programme leaders identified five key attributes of national programmes: 1) being knowledge and science based; 2) fostering cross-nation equivalence and harmonisation; 3) developing partnerships and national coordination; 4) providing leadership and administration of national efforts; and 5) capacity development. Proposed core purposes include: 1) establishment and communication of the national wildlife health status; 2) leading national planning; 3) centralising information and expertise; 4) developing national networks leading to harmonisation and collaborations; 5) developing wildlife health workforces; and 6) centralising administration and management of national programmes. A national wildlife health programme should aim to identify, effectively communicate and manage the risk to or from a country's wildlife populations. It should generate the appropriate knowledge required to improve the effectiveness of wildlife policies and systems, including identifying and assessing emerging priorities, thus facilitating early warning, preparedness and preventive actions.

La santé de la faune sauvage a un impact important sur la préservation des espèces et d'écosystèmes sains, sur le développement durable et sur la biosécurité. Les défis sont nombreux et complexes pour les programmes nationaux de gouvernance et de mise en oeuvre car les responsabilités et les compétences juridictionnelles sont croisées et les secteurs d'expertise sont multiples. L'Organisation mondiale de la santé animale (OIE) encourage ses Membres à mettre en place des systèmes de notification et de surveillance des maladies de la faune sauvage. Les programmes existants sont de tailles et de compétences variables et les orientations prises concernant les fonctions indispensables pour répondre aux recommandations de l'OIE et à ce qui est attendu d'un programme national ne sont pas toujours déterminées sur une base scientifique. Une revue de la littérature et des consultations auprès de responsables des programmes nationaux de santé de la faune sauvage ont permis d'identifier cinq attributs à proposer pour ces programmes nationaux. Ces programmes doivent :1) fonctionner sur la base de données scientifiques ; 2) favoriser l'équivalence et l'harmonisation transnationales ; 3) développer des partenariats et une coordination à l'échelle nationale ; 4) encadrer et administrer les efforts nationaux ; et 5) assurer le renforcement des capacités. Les missions essentielles sont : 1) déterminer et rendre publique la situation sanitaire de la faune sauvage dans le pays ; 2) encadrer le plan national ; 3) centraliser l'information et l'expertise ; 4) développer les réseaux nationaux d'harmonisation et de collaboration ; 5) former des personnels compétents dans le domaine de la faune sauvage ; et 6) centraliser l'administration et la gestion des programmes nationaux. Les objectifs d'un programme national de santé de la faune sauvage sont d'identifier, de rendre publics et de gérer les risques pour les populations d'animaux sauvages ainsi que les risques générés par ces mêmes populations. Ces programmes doivent promouvoir les connaissances nécessaires pour améliorer l'efficacité des politiques et des systèmes applicables à la faune sauvage, en particulier l'identification et l'évaluation des nouvelles priorités afin de faciliter la mise en oeuvre de systèmes d'alerte précoce, de préparation aux urgences et d'action préventive.

La salud de los animales silvestres, tan importante para la conservación del medio, el buen funcionamiento de los ecosistemas, el desarrollo sostenible y la seguridad biológica, presenta singulares dificultades desde el punto de vista de la gobernanza y aplicación de programas nacionales, dado que la fauna silvestre no solo toca a múltiples responsabilidades y atribuciones jurisdiccionales sino que, por su propia naturaleza, convoca a una plétora de especialidades técnicas. La Organización Mundial de Sanidad Animal (OIE) alienta a sus Miembros a que se doten de sistemas de vigilancia y notificación de enfermedades de la fauna silvestre. Allí donde existen, los programas nacionales en la materia son muy variopintos en cuanto a sus dimensiones y alcance. Faltan pautas científicamente sólidas sobre las funciones y atribuciones básicas que se requieren para cumplir las recomendaciones de la OIE y otras expectativas a las que pueda responder un programa nacional. Tras efectuar un estudio bibliográfico y consultar a los directivos de programas nacionales en la materia, los autores determinaron cinco atributos clave que debe reunir todo programa nacional: 1) estar basado en el saber y la ciencia; 2) favorecer la equivalencia y la armonización entre naciones; 3) crear alianzas y mecanismos de coordinación nacional; 4) encabezar y administrar las actividades a escala nacional; y 5) desarrollar los medios de acción del país. Los objetivos básicos propuestos son: 1) determinar y dar a conocer la situación sanitaria de la fauna silvestre del país; 2) dirigir las labores de planificación a escala nacional; 3) centralizar la información y las competencias especializadas; 4) instituir redes nacionales que propicien la armonización y las iniciativas de colaboración; 5) desarrollar los recursos humanos dedicados a la sanidad de la fauna silvestre; y 6) centralizar la gestión y administración de los programas nacionales. Todo programa nacional de sanidad de la fauna silvestre debe responder a la finalidad de detectar, comunicar eficazmente y gestionar los riesgos que amenacen a las poblaciones de animales silvestres del país o que provengan de ellas. A tal efecto debe generar el conocimiento adecuado y necesario para conferir más eficacia a las políticas y sistemas tocantes a la fauna silvestre, lo que supone, entre otras cosas, determinar y evaluar las nuevas prioridades, facilitando con ello la alerta anticipada y las labores de preparación y prevención.

Widespread Usutu virus outbreak in birds in the Netherlands, 2016.

We report a widespread Usutu virus outbreak in birds in the Netherlands. Viral presence had been detected through targeted surveillance as early as April 2016 and increased mortality in common blackbirds and captive great grey owls was noticed from August 2016 onwards. Usutu virus infection was confirmed by post-mortem examination and RT-PCR. Extensive Usutu virus activity in the Netherlands in 2016 underlines the need to monitor mosquito activity and mosquito-borne infections in 2017 and beyond.

Sleep efficiency as a determinant of insulin sensitivity in overweight and obese adolescents.

UNLABELLED: Insulin resistance (IR) occurs in a transient manner during puberty. Obese adolescents may be at risk for persistent IR during puberty. The objective of the study is to review the literature on the association of the anthropometry and lifestyle characteristics with insulin sensitivity in overweight and obese adolescents, and include data from a new study. Relevant papers were selected and reviewed. In addition, 137 overweight and obese adolescents (42 male/95 female, age 14.4 ± 2.3 years, BMI z-score +3.3 ± 0.7, HOMA-IR 3.4 ± 1.8) from the Centre for Overweight Adolescent and Children's Healthcare (MUMC+) were included in this study. Anthropometrics, Tanner stages, sleep characteristics, food intake behaviour and physical activity were determined, and possible associations with homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) were tested. RESULTS: Overweight and obese adolescents with unfavourable fat partitioning and family history of NIDDM are at risk for persistent IR. Overweight and obese adolescents from the new cohort showed a higher HOMA-IR postpubertally. BMI z-score, age, pubertal stage and prepubertally total sleeping time (TST) and sleep efficiency (SE) were identified as significant contributors. Overweight and obese adolescents showed a persistently higher instead of transiently higher HOMA-IR during puberty, associated with BMI z-score, age, pubertal stage and prepubertally less TST and SE.

Tularaemia in a brown hare (Lepus europaeus) in 2013: first case in the Netherlands in 60 years.

Tularaemia has not been reported in Dutch wildlife since 1953. To enhance detection, as of July 2011, brown hares (Lepus europaeus) submitted for postmortem examination in the context of non-targeted wildlife disease surveillance, were routinely tested for tularaemia by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Francisella tularensis subspecies holarctica infection was confirmed in a hare submitted in May 2013. The case occurred in Limburg, near the site of the 1953 case. Further surveillance should clarify the significance of this finding.

Application of the World Café method to discuss the efficiency of African swine fever control strategies in European wild boar (Sus scrofa) populations.

In the current epidemic of African swine fever (ASF) in Europe, the maintenance and spread of the disease among wild boar populations remains the most important epidemiological challenge. Affected and at-risk countries have addressed this situation using a diversity of wild boar management methods with varying levels of success. The methods applied range from conventional animal disease intervention measures (zoning, stakeholder awareness campaigns, increased surveillance and biosecurity measures) to measures aimed at reducing wild boar population movements (fencing and baiting/feeding) or population numbers (intensive hunting). To assess the perceived efficiency and acceptance of such measures in the context of a focal introduction of ASF, the authors organised a participatory workshop inviting experts from the fields of wildlife management, wild boar ecology, sociology, epidemiology and animal disease management to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of various control approaches. The discussions between professionals from different countries took place using the World Café method. This paper documents the World Café method as a tool for increasing the level of participation in multi-stakeholder group discussions, and describes the outputs of the workshop pertaining to the control measures. In summary, the World Café method was perceived as an efficient tool for quickly grasping comprehensive perspectives from the professionals involved in managing ASF and wild boar populations, while promoting engagement in multi-disciplinary discussions. The exercise achieved a good overview of the perceived efficiency and applicability of the different control methods and generated useful recommendations for ASF control in wild boar populations in Europe.

Genomic monitoring to understand the emergence and spread of Usutu virus in the Netherlands, 2016-2018.

Usutu virus (USUV) is a mosquito-borne flavivirus circulating in Western Europe that causes die-offs of mainly common blackbirds (Turdus merula). In the Netherlands, USUV was first detected in 2016, when it was identified as the likely cause of an outbreak in birds. In this study, dead blackbirds were collected, screened for the presence of USUV and submitted to Nanopore-based sequencing. Genomic sequences of 112 USUV were obtained and phylogenetic analysis showed that most viruses identified belonged to the USUV Africa 3 lineage, and molecular clock analysis evaluated their most recent common ancestor to 10 to 4 years before first detection of USUV in the Netherlands. USUV Europe 3 lineage, commonly found in Germany, was less frequently detected. This analyses further suggest some extent of circulation of USUV between the Netherlands, Germany and Belgium, as well as likely overwintering of USUV in the Netherlands.

Heterozygosity and lungworm burden in harbour seals (Phoca vitulina).

In several studies, heterozygosity measured at around 10 microsatellite markers correlates with parasite load. Usually the effect size is small, but while this may reflect reality, it may also be possible that too few markers are used or the measure of fitness contains too much error to reveal what is actually a much stronger underlying effect. Here, we analysed over 200 stranded harbour seals (Phoca vitulina) for an association between lungworm burden and heterozygosity, conducting thorough necropsies on the seals and genotyping the samples obtained for 27 microsatellites. We found that homozygosity predicts higher worm burdens, but only in young animals, where the worms have the greatest impact on fitness. Testing each locus separately, we found that a significant majority reveal a weak but similar trend for heterozygosity to be protective against high lungworm burden, suggesting a genome-wide effect, that is, inbreeding. This conclusion is supported by the fact that heterozygosity is correlated among markers in young animals but not in otherwise equivalent older ones. Taken as a whole, our results support the notion that homozygosity increases susceptibility to parasitic infection and suggest that parasites can be effective in removing inbred individuals from the population.

Disease Risk Assessments Involving Companion Animals: an Overview for 15 Selected Pathogens Taking a European Perspective.

Prioritization of companion animal transmissible diseases was performed by the Companion Animals multisectoriaL interprofessionaL Interdisciplinary Strategic Think tank On zoonoses (CALLISTO) project. The project considered diseases occurring in domesticated species commonly kept as pets, such as dogs and cats, but also included diseases occurring in captive wild animals and production animal species. The prioritization process led to the selection of 15 diseases of prime public health relevance, agricultural economic importance, or both. An analysis was made of the current knowledge on the risk of occurrence and transmission of these diseases among companion animals, and from companion animals to man (zoonoses) or to livestock. The literature was scanned for risk assessments for these diseases. Studies were classified as import risk assessments (IRAs) or risk factor analyses (RFAs) in endemic areas. For those pathogens that are absent from Europe, only IRAs were considered; for pathogens present throughout Europe, only RFAs were considered. IRAs were identified for seven of the eight diseases totally or partially absent from Europe. IRAs for classical rabies and alveolar echinococcosis found an increased risk for introduction of the pathogen into officially disease-free areas as a consequence of abandoning national rules and adopting the harmonized EU rules for pet travel. IRAs for leishmaniosis focused on risk associated with the presence of persistently infected dogs in new geographical areas, taking into consideration the risk of disease establishment should a competent vector arise. IRAs for Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever and West Nile fever indicated that the likelihood of introduction via companion animals was low. IRAs for bluetongue paid no attention to the risk of introduction via companion animals, which was also the case for IRAs for foot-and-mouth disease, the only disease considered to be absent from Europe. RFAs dealing with the risk factors for companion animals to become infected were identified for eight of the 14 diseases found in Europe or parts of it. RFAs for leptospirosis were most numerous (four studies). The host related risk factor 'age' was identified as significant for dogs in at least two RFAs for cystic echinococcosis and giardiasis. Among husbandry and healthcare related factors, 'eating (uncooked) offal', 'being free roaming' and 'poor deworming practice' were associated with risk for dogs in at least two RFAs for cystic echinococcosis, while 'having received recent veterinary treatment' was identified as a risk factor in at least two studies on infection with extended spectrum beta lactamase-producing bacteria, one in horses and the other in dogs and cats. Finally, although the environmental factors 'season' and 'hydrological density' were identified as significant risk factors for dogs in at least two RFAs for leptospirosis, the inconsistent case definitions used in those studies made comparison of study results problematic. RFAs considering the risk of people becoming infected from companion animals were identified for eight of the 14 diseases found in Europe or parts of it. RFAs for human campylobacteriosis were the most numerous (n = 6). Most studies made an assessment as to whether keeping a pet per se, or keeping a pet with supposed or known risk factors, was a risk factor for people relative to other risks. This allowed some studies to report the population attributable risk or population attributable fraction of the incidence of human disease due to companion animals (for campylobacteriosis, salmonellosis and toxoplasmosis), which is a measure that is easy to perceive for laymen and policy makers. No RFAs were found that dealt with the risk to food animals from companion animals for any of the 15 pathogens investigated. Few risk method-based studies were identified that provided information on risk factors for companion animals and on their role as a source of these 15 selected diseases, indicating a clear knowledge gap. There were not enough assessments for any of the 15 diseases to allow meta-analyses, whether these assessments dealt with companion animal disease risk or companion animal-associated human disease risk. Important method and technology gaps were the lack of harmonization in the case definitions used for a given disease and the lack of good diagnostics allowing pathogen identification to taxonomic levels that are meaningful for risk analysis. Molecular epidemiology studies on zoonotic pathogens, which included companion animals among the potential human risk factors, were not found, although such studies would provide good preliminary insights without requiring any tracing of people or any interviews. In addition to performing further risk studies that take into account these issues, there is a need for responsible pet ownership and continued education of professionals in companion animal zoonoses. Additional risk assessment studies should allow more targeted actions to reduce the risk of zoonotic diseases transferred via companion animals and provide information that will promote risk-awareness in healthy human-animal relationships.

Prioritization of Companion Animal Transmissible Diseases for Policy Intervention in Europe.

A number of papers have been published on the prioritization of transmissible diseases in farm animals and wildlife, based either on semiquantitative or truly quantitative methods, but there is no published literature on the prioritization of transmissible diseases in companion animals. In this study, available epidemiological data for diseases transmissible from companion animals to man were analysed with the aim of developing a procedure suitable for their prioritization within a European framework. A new method and its associated questionnaire and scoring system were designed based on methods described by the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE). Modifications were applied to allow for the paucity of specific information on companion animal transmissible diseases. The OIE method was also adapted to the subject and to the regional scope of the interprofessional network addressing zoonotic diseases transmitted via companion animals in Europe: the Companion Animals multisectoriaL interprofessionaL Interdisciplinary Strategic Think tank On zoonoses (CALLISTO). Adaptations were made based on information collected from expert groups on viral, bacterial and parasitic diseases using a structured questionnaire, in which all questions were closed-ended. The expert groups were asked to select the most appropriate answer for each question taking into account the relevance and reliability of the data available in the scientific literature. Subsequently, the scoring of the answers obtained for each disease covered by the questionnaire was analysed to obtain two final overall scores, one for human health impact and one for agricultural economic impact. The adapted method was then applied to select the 15 most important pathogens (five for each pathogen group: viral, bacterial and parasitic) on the basis of their overall impact on public health and agriculture. The result of the prioritization exercise was a joint priority list (available at www.callistoproject.eu) of relevant pathogens according to these two criteria. As the scope of CALLISTO was comprehensive in terms of geographical area, animal species involved and impact of the diseases, the list of prioritized diseases had to accommodate the realities in different European countries and the differences in biology and animal-human relationships in a wide range of species including cats and dogs, pet pigs and sheep as well as captive reptiles. The methodology presented in this paper can be used to generate accurate priority lists according to narrower and more specific objectives.

Children With Morbid Obesity Benefit Equally as Children With Overweight and Obesity From an Ongoing Care Program.

CONTEXT: Despite stabilization of childhood overweight and obesity prevalence, there is a shift toward more severe degrees of obesity, which results in an increasing prevalence of children with morbid obesity. Prior studies demonstrated that lifestyle modification without ongoing treatment has only a modest and not sustainable effect in children with morbid obesity. This suggests that a chronic care model is necessary for long-term effects on weight management and health. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to evaluate the effect of an ongoing lifestyle intervention in children with morbid obesity in comparison with children with overweight and obesity. DESIGN AND SETTING: This was a nonrandomized prospective intervention study with 12- and 24-month followup at the Centre for Overweight Adolescent and Children's Healthcare. PATIENTS AND INTERVENTION: Children and adolescents (n = 100 females and 72 males) with overweight, obesity, or morbid obesity were given long-term, outpatient, tailored lifestyle intervention. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Body mass index (BMI) z score was measured. RESULTS: In children with morbid obesity, 12- and 24-month interventions resulted in a decrease of BMI z score of -0.13 ± 0.25 (P = .001) and -0.23 ± 0.32 (P = .01) respectively, whereas weight status category improved to obese in 21% and 25% of the children. Cardiovascular risk parameters including serum total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA1c), and diastolic blood pressure significantly improved after 1-year intervention in the complete group. Most important, BMI z score as well as cardiovascular risk parameters improved to a similar degree in children with overweight, obesity, and morbid obesity. CONCLUSIONS: Children with overweight, obesity, and morbid obesity benefit equally from an ongoing, outpatient, tailored lifestyle intervention, and demonstrate significant weight loss and improvement of cardiovascular risk parameters.

Quantitative analysis of the 2002 phocine distemper epidemic in the Netherlands.

Phocine distemper virus (PDV) caused thousands of deaths among harbor seals (Phoca vitulina) from the North Sea in 1988 and 2002. To examine the effects of different factors on the pathology of phocine distemper, we performed necropsies and laboratory analyses on 369 harbor seals that stranded along the Dutch coast during the 2002 PDV epidemic. Diagnostic tests for morbillivirus infection indicated a differential temporal presence of morbillivirus in lung and brain. Seals of 3 years or older were significantly more often IgG positive than younger seals. The most frequent lesions in PDV cases were bronchopneumonia, broncho-interstitial pneumonia, and interstitial emphysema. Extra-thoracic emphysema was rare in <1-year-olds compared with older seals, even though severe pneumonia was more common. PDV cases generally had empty stomachs and less blubber than by-caught seals from before the epidemic. In PDV cases involving older animals, lung, kidney, and adrenal weights were significantly increased. Bordetella bronchiseptica was isolated from lungs in two thirds of the PDV cases examined. Our results indicate that brain should be included among the tissues tested for PDV by RT-PCR; that either phocine distemper has a longer duration in older seals or that there are age-related differences in immunity and organ development; that dehydration could play a role in the course and outcome of phocine distemper; and that bacterial coinfections in lungs are more frequent in PDV cases than gross lesions suggest. These results illustrate how quantitative analysis of pathology data from such epidemics can improve understanding of the causative disease.

Obliterative endophlebitis in mute swans (Cygnus olor) caused by Trichobilharzia sp. (Digenea: Schistosomatidae) infection.

Schistosome infections in mammals cause chronic proliferative vascular lesions associated with the presence of adult parasites in the lumen of mesenteric and portal veins. In birds, however, this has never been reported. In this study, we found obliterative endophlebitis associated with the presence of adult schistosomes (Trichobilharzia sp., probably Trichobilharzia filiformis) as the main pathologic finding in five of eight mute swans (Cygnus olor). On histologic examination, the intestinal and portal veins of these swans showed moderate to severe, diffuse, hyperplastic endophlebitis, characterized by myointimal hyperplasia, often with obliteration of the vascular lumen. In addition, moderate to severe lymphocytic and granulocytic enteritis occurred in all eight swans associated with the presence of schistosome eggs in the intestinal mucosa. Other findings included hepatic and splenic hemosiderosis and high hepatic copper levels. The vascular lesions associated with Trichobilharzia sp. infection may have contributed to the emaciation and death of those mute swans by obstruction of venous return in the intestinal and portal veins.