Childhood adverse experiences and clinical manifestations in women with systemic lupus erythematosus.

BACKGROUND: Patients with a history of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) have a higher incidence of developing autoimmune diseases such as systemic lupus erythematosus. OBJECTIVE: The objective is to associate the ACE with the clinical manifestations of SLE in adult women. METHODS: This is a cross-sectional observational analytical study in a sample of women diagnosed with SLE, whose data were collected through interviews and a review of medical records. The ACE were identified using the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ) and were associated with sociodemographic and clinical data, as well as the presence of harm. RESULTS: The sample was composed of 97 women. In this study, significant associations were found between physical abuse and oral ulcers (p = .006) and nephritis (p = .032); between sexual abuse and Sjogren's syndrome (p = .024) and oral ulcers (p = .035); between physical neglect and photosensitivity (p = .024) and oral ulcers (p = .039); and between emotional neglect and diabetes mellitus (p = .033). CONCLUSION: Individuals with a positive history of ACE have significant associations with certain clinical manifestations of SLE and subtypes of ACE, underscoring the importance of preventing childhood trauma to improve adult health. Further studies are needed to elucidate the impact of ACE on adult health.

Retrospective Analysis of Patient-Reported Adverse Drug Reactions in an Italian Allergy Unit: ALLERG-RAF Study.

INTRODUCTION: The Italian Medicines Agency indicates that about 5% of hospital admissions are due to adverse drug reactions (ADRs). Several factors are recognized to be associated with an increased risk for ADRs, such as the female gender and polytherapy. The aim of this study was to retrospectively analyze the suspected ADRs reported by patients during the anamnestic interview at the Allergy Unit. PATIENTS AND METHODS: ALLERG-RAF study is a retrospective analysis of the medical records of patients evaluated in the Allergy Unit of ASST Spedali Civili and the University of Brescia from 2000 to 2016. The inclusion criteria were age ≥18 years and medical consultation requested for suspected ADRs. Data relating to the patient's intrinsic characteristics, the drug supposed to be the cause, and the prescribed pharmacological therapy were collected. Pseudonymized data from each patient were collected in an informatics database. RESULTS: From 2000 to 2016, 35,817 accesses to the Allergy Unit were made, and 2,171 unique events related to a suspected ADR were collected in 1,840 patients. More than two-thirds of the reports concerned females (70.4%). Antibiotics were involved in the majority of the self-reported suspected ADRs (48.7%), particularly beta-lactams (61.1%). Anti-inflammatory drugs, mainly NSAIDs, were second in incidence and suspected in 25.2% of reports. As a site of ADR manifestation, most of the reported reactions involve the skin. No clinical sequelae were reported. CONCLUSIONS: Our results underline the importance of patient reporting in pharmacovigilance. Furthermore, gender gap data emphasizes the importance of the gender-specific medicine approach.

FSCN1 as a new druggable target in adrenocortical carcinoma.

Adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) is a rare endocrine malignancy with a high risk of relapse and metastatic spread. The actin-bundling protein fascin (FSCN1) is overexpressed in aggressive ACC and represents a reliable prognostic indicator. FSCN1 has been shown to synergize with VAV2, a guanine nucleotide exchange factor for the Rho/Rac GTPase family, to enhance the invasion properties of ACC cancer cells. Based on those results, we investigated the effects of FSCN1 inactivation by CRISPR/Cas9 or pharmacological blockade on the invasive properties of ACC cells, both in vitro and in an in vivo metastatic ACC zebrafish model. Here, we showed that FSCN1 is a transcriptional target for ß-catenin in H295R ACC cells and that its inactivation resulted in defects in cell attachment and proliferation. FSCN1 knock-out modulated the expression of genes involved in cytoskeleton dynamics and cell adhesion. When Steroidogenic Factor-1 (SF-1) dosage was upregulated in H295R cells, activating their invasive capacities, FSCN1 knock-out reduced the number of filopodia, lamellipodia/ruffles and focal adhesions, while decreasing cell invasion in Matrigel. Similar effects were produced by the FSCN1 inhibitor G2-044, which also diminished the invasion of other ACC cell lines expressing lower levels of FSCN1 than H295R. In the zebrafish model, metastases formation was significantly reduced in FSCN1 knock-out cells and G2-044 significantly reduced the number of metastases formed by ACC cells. Our results indicate that FSCN1 is a new druggable target for ACC and provide the rationale for future clinical trials with FSCN1 inhibitors in patients with ACC.

Preclinical Evidence of Progesterone as a New Pharmacological Strategy in Human Adrenocortical Carcinoma Cell Lines.

BACKGROUND: Adrenocortical cancer (ACC) is a rare malignancy with a dismal prognosis. The treatment includes mitotane and EDP chemotherapy (etoposide, doxorubicin, and cisplatin). However, new therapeutic approaches for advanced ACC are needed, particularly targeting the metastatic process. Here, we deepen the role of progesterone as a new potential drug for ACC, in line with its antitumoral effect in other cancers. METHODS: NCI-H295R, MUC-1, and TVBF-7 cell lines were used and xenografted in zebrafish embryos. Migration and invasion were studied using transwell assays, and MMP2 activity was studied using zymography. Apoptosis and cell cycle were analyzed by flow cytometry. RESULTS: Progesterone significantly reduced xenograft tumor area and metastases formation in embryos injected with metastatic lines, MUC-1 and TVBF-7. These results were confirmed in vitro, where the reduction of invasion was mediated, at least in part, by the decrease in MMP2 levels. Progesterone exerted a long-lasting effect in metastatic cells. Progesterone caused apoptosis in NCI-H295R and MUC-1, inducing changes in the cell-cycle distribution, while autophagy was predominantly activated in TVBF-7 cells. CONCLUSION: Our results give support to the role of progesterone in ACC. The involvement of its analog (megestrol acetate) in reducing ACC progression in ACC patients undergoing EDP-M therapy is now under investigation in the PESETA phase II clinical study.

Caffeine Inhibits Direct and Indirect Angiogenesis in Zebrafish Embryos.

In this study, we report the effects of caffeine on angiogenesis in zebrafish embryos both during normal development and after exposure to Fibroblast Growth Factor 2 (FGF2). As markers of angiogenesis, we measured the length and width of intersegmental vessels (ISVs), performed whole-mount in situ hybridization with fli1 and cadh5 vascular markers, and counted the number of interconnecting vessels (ICVs) in sub-intestinal venous plexus (SIVP). In addition, we measured angiogenesis after performing zebrafish yolk membrane (ZFYM) assay with microinjection of fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF2) and perivitelline tumor xenograft assay with microinjection of tumorigenic FGF2-overexpressing endothelial (FGF2-T-MAE) cells. The results showed that caffeine treatment causes a shortening and thinning of ISVs along with a decreased expression of the vascular marker genes and a decrease in the number of ICVs in the SIVP. Caffeine was also able to block angiogenesis induced by exogenous FGF2 or FGF2-producing cells. Overall, our results are suggestive of the inhibitory effect of caffeine in both direct and indirect angiogenesis.

Amiloride Is Effective in the Management of Abiraterone-Induced Mineralocorticoid Excess Syndrome without Interfering with Its Antineoplastic Activity.

BACKGROUND: The administration of abiraterone acetate (abiraterone) leads to an adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)-driven increase in mineralocorticoid hormones, requiring glucocorticoid supplementation that may stimulate the growth of prostate cancer (PCa). Amiloride is a drug that selectively reduces the aldosterone-sensitive Na+/K+ exchange and could be effective in the management of mineralocorticoid excess syndrome (MCES). METHODS: The efficacy of amiloride + hydrochlorothiazide (HCT) in the clinical management of abiraterone-induced MCES was assessed in 5 consecutive patients with castration-resistant PCa (CRPC). Then, using the in vitro experimental model of PCa cell lines, the possible effects of drugs usually used in the clinical management of CRPC patients on PCa cell viability were investigated. RESULTS: Amiloride/HCT led to a complete disappearance of all clinical and biochemical signs of abiraterone-induced MCES in the 5 treated patients. The in vitro study showed that abiraterone treatment significantly decreased cell viability of both androgen receptor (AR)-expressing VCaP (vertebral-cancer of the prostate) and LNCaP (lymph node carcinoma of the prostate) cells, with no effect on AR-negative PC-3 cells. Prednisolone, spironolactone, and eplerenone increased LNCaP cell viability, while amiloride reduced it. The non-steroid aldosterone antagonist PF-03882845 did not modify PCa cell viability. CONCLUSIONS: The combination of amiloride/HCT was effective in the management of abiraterone-induced MCES. Amiloride did not negatively interfere with the abiraterone inhibition of PCa cell viability in vitro.

Identification and Characterisation of a Myxoma Virus Detected in the Italian Hare (Lepus corsicanus).

Myxoma virus (MYXV) is a Leporipoxvirus (genus) belonging to the family Poxviridae; it is characterised by a genome of approximately 161 kb dsDNA encoding for several proteins that play an essential role in both host spectrum determination and immunomodulation. The healthy reservoir of the virus is Sylvilagus spp. At the same time, in wild and domestic European rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus), MYXV is the etiologic agent of myxomatosis, a disease with an extremely high mortality rate. In 2014, an interspecies jump of MYXV was reported in Lepus europaeus in the UK. In 2018, myxomatosis induced by a new recombinant strain called MYXV-To was identified during a large outbreak in Iberian hares (Lepus granatensis) in Spain. Here, we describe the case of myxomatosis in another hare species: an adult male Italian hare (Lepus corsicanus) found dead in 2018 in Sicily with lesions suggestive of myxomatosis and treponema infection. Laboratory tests, e.g., end-point PCR and negative staining electron microscopy, confirmed the presence of both pathogens. MYXV was then isolated from tissue samples in permissive cells and sequenced using NGS technology. Main genomic differences concerning known MYXV strains are discussed.

The CDK Inhibitor Dinaciclib Improves Cisplatin Response in Nonseminomatous Testicular Cancer: A Preclinical Study.

BACKGROUND: Most patients with testicular germ cell tumors (GCTs) are treated with cisplatin (CP)-based chemotherapy. However, some of them may develop CP resistance and therefore represent a clinical challenge. Cyclin-dependent kinase 5 (CDK5) is involved in chemotherapy resistance in different types of cancer. Here, we investigated the possible role of CDK5 and other CDKs targeted by dinaciclib in nonseminoma cell models (both CP-sensitive and CP-resistant), evaluating the potential of the CDK inhibitor dinaciclib as a single/combined agent for the treatment of advanced/metastatic testicular cancer (TC). METHODS: The effects of dinaciclib and CP on sensitive and resistant NT2/D1 and NCCIT cell viability and proliferation were evaluated using MTT assays and direct count methods. Flow cytometry cell-cycle analysis was performed. The protein expression was assessed via Western blotting. The in vivo experiments were conducted in zebrafish embryos xenografted with TC cells. RESULTS: Among all the CDKs analyzed, CDK5 protein expression was significantly higher in CP-resistant models. Dinaciclib reduced the cell viability and proliferation in each cell model, inducing changes in cell-cycle distribution. In drug combination experiments, dinaciclib enhances the CP effect both in vitro and in the zebrafish model. CONCLUSIONS: Dinaciclib, when combined with CP, could be useful for improving nonseminoma TC response to CP.

Germline NGS targeted analysis in adult patients with sporadic adrenocortical carcinoma.

BACKGROUND: Adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) is a rare cancer that arises sporadically or due to hereditary syndromes. Data on germline variants (GVs) in sporadic ACC are limited. Our aim was to characterize GVs of genes potentially related to adrenal diseases in 150 adult patients with sporadic ACC. METHODS: This was a retrospective analysis of stage I-IV ACC patients with sporadic ACC from two reference centers for ACC in Italy. Patients were included in the analysis if they had confirmed diagnosis of ACC, a frozen peripheral blood sample and complete clinical and follow-up data. Next generation sequencing technology was used to analyze the prevalence of GVs in a custom panel of 17 genes belonging to either cancer-predisposition genes or adrenocortical-differentiation genes categories. RESULTS: We identified 18 GVs based on their frequency, enrichment and predicted functional characteristics. We found six pathogenic (P) or likely pathogenic (LP) variants in ARMC5, CTNNB1, MSH2, PDE11A and TP53 genes; and twelve variants lacking evidence of pathogenicity. New unique P/LP variants were identified in TP53 (p.G105D) and, for the first time, in ARMC5 (p.P731R). The presence of P/LP GVs was associated with reduced survival outcomes and had a significant and independent impact on both progression-free survival and overall survival. CONCLUSIONS: GVs were present in 6.7 % of patients with sporadic ACC, and we identified novel variants of ARMC5 and TP53. These findings may improve understanding of ACC pathogenesis and enable genetic counseling of patients and their families.

Trabectedin impairs invasiveness and metastasis in adrenocortical carcinoma preclinical models.

The pharmacological approach to adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) is based on mitotane with/without etoposide, doxorubicin, and cisplatin, according to the disease stage. Considering the limited efficacy and toxicity of this treatment, new strategies are required. Trabectedin is a marine-derivated antitumoral agent that inhibits oncogenic transcription. We have already demonstrated trabectedin cytotoxic activity at sub-nanomolar concentrations in ACC cells. Here, we expanded the investigation of trabectedin effect on ACC preclinical models, evaluating whether trabectedin could affect ACC cells' invasiveness and metastasis formation. NCI-H295R, MUC-1, and TVBF-7 cell lines were used. Cell tumor xenografts in Danio rerio embryos were performed. The tumor mass areas and the number of embryos with metastasis were evaluated. The in vitro invasiveness of cells was evaluated. Effects of trabectedin of MMP2, TIMP1, and TIMP2 were evaluated at gene level qRT-PCR. MMP2 secreted in the cell medium was evaluated by Western blot and by zymography. Xenograft experiments demonstrated that trabectedin significantly reduced the tumor area in each ACC cell model and metastasis formation in embryos injected with metastasis-derived cell lines. Trabectedin treatment reduced the invasiveness of ACC cells across the matrix, which was greater at baseline for the metastatic models. In metastatic cell models, protein analysis demonstrated a reduction of MMP2 secretion and activity in the culture medium after treatment. Our results indicate that trabectedin interferes with invasiveness and metastasis processes, both dramatic features of ACC. Furthermore, these results support those previously published in providing the rationale for a clinical evaluation of the efficacy of trabectedin in ACC patients.

An update on adrenocortical cell lines of human origin.

Adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) is a rare, heterogenous and highly malignant disease. Management of ACC is dependent on disease stage with complete surgical resection as the only potentially curative option. However, advanced, un-resectable, metastatic stages and also recurrences often require systemic treatments, which are unfortunately nowadays still unsatisfactory. The scarcity of preclinical models reflecting patient heterogeneities and furthermore drug-resistant phenotypes, has hampered the progress and development of new therapies in recent years. In this review, we provide an overview on the classical models and substantial progress which has been made over the last years in context of this aggressive disease.

Advances in adrenocortical carcinoma pharmacotherapy: what is the current state of the art?

INTRODUCTION: Surgery, followed or not by adjuvant mitotane, is the current mainstay of therapy for patients with early-stage adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC). Mitotane, either alone or in association with EDP (Etoposide-Doxorubicin-Cisplatin) combination chemotherapy, is the standard approach for patients with metastatic ACC. AREAS COVERED: The activity of newer cytotoxic drugs, radioligands, targeted therapies, and immunotherapy, both in preclinical and clinical studies, will be reviewed in this paper. EXPERT OPINION: ADIUVO trial revealed that the administration of adjuvant mitotane is not advantageous in patients with good prognosis. Future strategies are to intensify efforts in adjuvant setting in patients with high risk of relapse. In patients with advanced/metastatic disease, modern targeted therapies have shown significant cytotoxicity in preclinical studies; however, studies in ACC patients reported disappointing results so far. The absence of targeted agents specifically inhibiting the major molecular pathways of ACC growth is the main cause of the failure of these drugs. Since ACC is often antigenic but poorly immunogenic, the results of immunotherapy trials appeared inferior to those achieved in the management of patients with other malignancies. Radioligand therapy may also be a promising approach. Combination of chemotherapy plus immunotherapy could be interesting to be tested in the future.

Ribociclib Cytotoxicity Alone or Combined With Progesterone and/or Mitotane in in Vitro Adrenocortical Carcinoma Cells.

Mitotane is the only approved drug for treating adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC). The regimen added to mitotane is chemotherapy with etoposide, doxorubicin, and cisplatin. This pharmacological approach, however, has a limited efficacy and significant toxicity. Target-therapy agents represent a new promising approach to cancer therapy. Among these, a preeminent role is played by agents that interfere with cell-cycle progression, such as CDK4/6-inhibitors. Here, we investigate whether ribociclib could induce a cytotoxic effect both in ACC cell line and patient-derived primary cell cultures, alone or in combined settings. Cell viability was determined by 3-(4,5-dimethyl-2-thiazol)-2,5-diphenyl-2H-tetrazolium bromide assay, whereas cell proliferation was evaluated by direct count. Binary combination experiments were performed using Chou and Talalay method. Gene expression was analyzed by quantitative RT-PCR, whereas protein expression was evaluated by immunofluorescence. A double staining assay revealed that ribociclib induced a prevalent apoptotic cell death. Cell-cycle analysis was performed to evaluate the effect of ribociclib treatment on cell-cycle progression in ACC cell models. Our results indicate that ribociclib was cytotoxic and reduced the cell proliferation rate. The effect on cell viability was enhanced when ribociclib was combined with progesterone and/or mitotane. The effect of ribociclib on cell-cycle progression revealed a drug-induced cell accumulation in G2 phase. The positive relationship underlined by our results between ribociclib, progesterone, and mitotane strengthen the clinical potential of this combination.

Estrogen-Like Effect of Mitotane Explained by Its Agonist Activity on Estrogen Receptor-α.

Mitotane is the cornerstone of medical treatment of adrenocortical carcinoma. Estrogenic-like side effects frequently occur in patients, and previous studies explored the chemical nature of the interaction between estrogen receptor-α (ER-α) and toxic compounds, including the DDD derivatives. We used molecular docking and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations to explore the possible interaction between mitotane and the ER-α receptor and the induced conformational changes. The ER-α expressing MCF-7 cells were exposed to mitotane with/without tamoxifen, and the cell viability/proliferation was evaluated by MTT assay and direct count. The transient ER-α silencing was performed using two ER-α siRNA (50 nM) and verified by Western blot. MDA-MB-231 cells were used as a negative control. Mitotane showed a similar docking configuration to 17ß-estradiol and bisphenol A (BPA) and a significant binding affinity to ER-α. MD simulations showed that mitotane preserves the active conformation of ER-α more than both BPA and Bisphenol C, classifying it as an agonist. Exposure of MCF-7 cells to mitotane led to the concentration-dependent increase of cell viability and proliferation, which was reduced in the presence of tamoxifen and nullified by the transient ER-α knock-down. Integrating bioinformatics approaches with cell biology and pharmacological methods, we demonstrated that mitotane directly binds and activates ER-α.

Cisplatin Cytotoxicity in Human Testicular Germ Cell Tumor Cell Lines Is Enhanced by the CDK4/6 Inhibitor Palbociclib.

BACKGROUND: Cisplatin-based chemotherapy is the mainstay of pharmacological treatment of testicular germ cell tumors (TGCTs) that, together with early diagnosis, surgery, and/or radiotherapy, has dramatically improved the prognosis. However, under the pressure of such pharmacological therapy (both classical cytotoxic drugs and targeted therapy), cancer cells may develop resistance. Thus, combination therapy that may include cytotoxic drugs and targeted therapy could offer an advantage to curing cancers. Here, we investigated the in vitro and in vivo antitumor activity of cisplatin, as a single-agent or in combination with palbociclib. PATIENTS AND METHODS: The cell viability of Ntera-2/cl.D1 (NT2/D1) and 833K after exposure to palbociclib and/or cisplatin was evaluated by MTT dye reduction assay and by ATPLite Luminescence Assay. Gene and protein expression was evaluated by quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction and by western blot. Flow cytometric cell-cycle analysis was performed, as well. The in vivo experiments were conducted on NT2/D1 xenografts in AB zebrafish embryos exposed to the drugs. RESULTS: Palbociclib and cisplatin decreased TGCT cell viability both in vitro and in vivo. This effect was additive when cells were exposed to the drug combination. In the NT2/D1 cell lines, the drug combination also exerted a positive effect with regard to delaying cell recovery after the toxic insult. In the combination experiments, cisplatin-induced cell accumulation in G2/M was predominant compared with the palbociclib effect. CONCLUSIONS: These results could provide the rationale for developing further studies to improve the pharmacological treatment of TGCTs, but they must be demonstrated in a dedicated clinical trial.

Cytotoxic Effect of Progesterone, Tamoxifen and Their Combination in Experimental Cell Models of Human Adrenocortical Cancer.

Progesterone (Pg) and estrogen (E) receptors (PgRs and ERs) are expressed in normal and neoplastic adrenal cortex, but their role is not fully understood. In literature, Pg demonstrated cytotoxic activity on AdrenoCortical Carcinoma (ACC) cells, while tamoxifen is cytotoxic in NCI-H295R cells. Here, we demonstrated that in ACC cell models, ERs were expressed in NCI-H295R cells with a prevalence of ER-ß over the ER-α.Metastasis-derived MUC-1 and ACC115m cells displayed a very weak ER-α/ß signal, while PgR cells were expressed, although at low level. Accordingly, these latter were resistant to the SERM tamoxifen and scarcely sensitive to Pg, as we observed a lower potency compared to NCI-H295R cells in cytotoxicity (IC50: MUC-1 cells: 67.58 µM (95%CI: 63.22-73.04), ACC115m cells: 51.76 µM (95%CI: 46.45-57.67) and cell proliferation rate. Exposure of NCI-H295R cells to tamoxifen induced cytotoxicity (IC50: 5.43 µM (95%CI: 5.18-5.69 µM) mainly involving ER-ß, as their nuclear localization increased after tamoxifen: Δ A.U. treated vs untreated: 12 h: +27.04% (p < 0.01); 24 h: +36.46% (p < 0.0001). This effect involved the SF-1 protein reduction: Pg: -36.34 ± 9.26%; tamoxifen: -46.25 ± 15.68% (p < 0.01). Finally, in a cohort of 36 ACC samples, immunohistochemistry showed undetectable/low level of ERs, while PgR demonstrated a higher expression. In conclusion, ACC experimental cell models expressed PgR and low levels of ER in line with data obtained in patient tissues, thus limiting the possibility of a clinical approach targeting ER. Interestingly, Pg exerted cytotoxicity also in metastatic ACC cells, although with low potency.

Cytotoxic Effect of Trabectedin In Human Adrenocortical Carcinoma Cell Lines and Primary Cells.

Mitotane is the only drug approved for the treatment of adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC). The regimen to be added to mitotane is a chemotherapy including etoposide, doxorubicin, and cisplatin. This pharmacological approach, however, has a limited efficacy and significant toxicity. Evidence indicates that ACC seems to be sensitive to alkylating agents. Trabectedin is an anti-tumor drug that acts as an alkylating agent with a complex mechanism of action. Here, we investigated whether trabectedin could exert a cytotoxic activity in in vitro cell models of ACC. Cell viability was evaluated by MTT assay on ACC cell lines and primary cell cultures. The gene expression was evaluated by q-RT-PCR, while protein expression and localization were studied by Western blot and immunocytochemistry. Combination experiments were performed to evaluate their interaction on ACC cell line viability. Trabectedin demonstrated high cytotoxicity at sub-nanomolar concentrations in ACC cell lines and patient-derived primary cell cultures. The drug was able to reduce /ß catenin nuclear localization, although it is unclear whether this effect is involved in the observed cytotoxicity. Trabectedin/mitotane combination exerted a synergic cytotoxic effect in NCI-H295R cells. Trabectedin has antineoplastic activity in ACC cells. The synergistic cytotoxic activity of trabectedin with mitotane provides the rationale for testing this combination in a clinical study.

Molecular Drivers of Potential Immunotherapy Failure in Adrenocortical Carcinoma.

Adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) is a rare, highly aggressive cancer, often insensitive to conventional chemotherapeutics agents. Early diagnosis, followed by radical surgical resection plus/minus adjuvant mitotane therapy, is nowadays the only valuable option. Unfortunately, one out of four patients has metastatic disease at diagnosis and most of radically resected ACC patients are destined to recur with local or metastatic disease. Numerous efforts aimed at identifying molecular alterations crucial for ACC pathogenesis have been extensively conducted, with the hope to develop new treatments. Indeed, multiple genes and pathways have been identified as potentially targetable in ACC patients; however, despite the strong preclinical rationale, translational findings to clinical trials led to date to disappointing results. The immunotherapeutic intervention targeting T-cell checkpoint molecules has been proposed as well, but results obtained in early studies indicate that ACC patients would be unlikely to benefit from immunotherapy. Genetic alterations of different pathways involved in ACC carcinogenesis are also known substrates of resistance to immunotherapy. Among them, ß-catenin gene CTNNB1 and TP53 gene are frequently mutated in ACC samples. Overactivation of the ß-catenin pathway and loss of p53 protein function are potential tumor-intrinsic factors that, impacting on the ability of ACC cells to recruit dendritic cells, leading to T-cell exclusion, put this tumor among those that are potentially resistant to immunotherapy. Moreover, the steroid phenotype, which implies glucocorticoids hypersecretion in a subset of ACC, contributes to generating an immunosuppressive microenvironment. Here, we review clinical results of immunotherapy in ACC and we highlight molecular mechanisms driving immunotherapy failure in ACC, suggesting possible approaches to overcome resistance.

Abiraterone acetate exerts a cytotoxic effect in human prostate cancer cell lines.

To study the capability of the CYP17A1 inhibitor abiraterone acetate (AER) to antagonize the androgen receptor (AR) activation in human prostate cancer (PCa) cell lines. T877A-AR-LNCaP, WT-AR-VCaP, AR-negative DU145, and PC3 PCa cell lines were used by MTT and cell count to study the ability of AER and enzalutamide (ENZ) to modify cell viability. The role of ARs in LNCaP was demonstrated through a gene-silencing experiment. The mechanism of AER cytotoxicity in LNCaP cells was studied, as well as the ability of AER to modulate AR gene expression. The in silico docking approach was applied to study the interaction of AER and ENZ with T877A-AR. Through high-performance liquid chromatography, the production of the AER main metabolite Δ4A was studied. AER bound AR in an almost identical manner to that of dihydrotestosterone (DHT). The higher binding energy for AER in T877A-AR could explain the major cytotoxic effect observed in LNCaP cells. The capability of LNCaP cells to synthesize Δ4A could mediate, at least in part, this effect. AER cytotoxicity in LNCaP cells was mainly due to the activation of apoptosis. Further, AER induced modification of AR target gene expression, suggesting a direct effect on AR activity. AER-induced cytotoxicity on PCa cell lines seemed to be mediated by binding with AR. The higher affinity of AER for T877A-AR may suggest a potential role of AER in the management of CRPC carrying this mutation; however, T877A-AR expressing CRPC patients developed AER resistance, probably due to the increase of progesterone.

Adrenocortical Carcinoma Xenograft in Zebrafish Embryos as a Model To Study the In Vivo Cytotoxicity of Abiraterone Acetate.

Abiraterone acetate (AbiAc) inhibits tumor growth when administered to immunodeficient mice engrafted with the in vitro cell model of human adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC). Here, we developed and validated a zebrafish model engrafted with cortisol-secreting ACC cells to study the effects of AbiAc on tumor growth. The experimental conditions for AbiAc absorption in AB zebrafish embryos including embryo number, AbiAc concentration, and absorption time curve by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry were set up. The AbiAc effect on steroid production in AB zebrafish embryos was measured as well. ACC cells (the NCI-H295R cell line, the primary cell ACC29, and the negative control cell SW13) were treated with drug-induced liver injury fluorescent dye, and ∼240 cells per 4 nL was injected in the subperidermal space of the yolk sac of AB zebrafish embryos (n = 80 ± 10). The cell area was measured with Noldus DanioScopeTM software. AbiAc absorption in AB zebrafish embryos was stage dependent. Abiraterone (Abi) concentration decreased, whereas its main metabolite, Δ4A, increased. Accordingly, we demonstrated that zebrafish expressed mRNA encoding the enzyme 3ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, which converts Abi in Δ4A. Furthermore, ABiAc reduced cortisol production and increased progesterone in zebrafish embryos. Three days after cell injection, the cortisol-secreting ACC cell area in solvent-treated embryos was significantly higher than that in 1 µM AbiAC‒treated embryos, whereas no AbiAc effect was observed in SW13 cells, which lack the Abi target enzyme CYP17A1.Zebrafish embryos xenografted with ACC tumor cells could be a useful, fast, and reproducible experimental model to preclinically test the activity of new drugs in human ACC.