Biotic patterns of heart rate variation in depressed and psychotic subjects.

This article presents novel quantitative methods to study R to R interval (RRI) series that identify their characteristic pattern of organization, Bios, and their variation in psychiatric illness. In this study twenty-four hour series of RRI were extracted from Holter recordings of healthy subjects (N = 74) and small groups of patients with affective depression or psychosis. These data were analyzed with recurrence and statistical methods. In all subjects, RRI series showed complexes (clusters of recurrences), such as those observed with mathematically-generated biotic series but not in chaotic or random series. RRI series from healthy persons showed diversification (increase in variance with the duration of the series analyzed), novelty (less recurrence isometry than copies randomized by shuffling), causal order (more consecutive isometry than shuffled copies), and asymmetric statistical distribution. These imprints of creative processes are characteristic of mathematical Bios, and are absent in chaos. Bios can be distinguished from random walk series by the nonrandom pattern of the series of differences between heartbeats, as well as by measures of consecutive isometry and of partial autocorrelation. These defining characteristics of Bios are significant signs of health. In comparison with healthy controls, psychiatric patient groups showed more isometry and more consecutive isometry than healthy subjects. Psychiatric patients also showed no diversification. This study highlights the process that produces heart rate variation as being non-stationary and creative (bios, not equilibrium or chaos) and causal (not stochastically generated by the coexistence of multiple factors). These results thus are significant regarding psychiatric health.

Urinary phenyl acetate: a diagnostic test for depression?

The compound 2-phenylethylamine is an "endogenous amphetamine" which may modulate central adrenergic functions. 2-Phenylethylamine is mainly metabolized by monoamine oxidase to form phenyl acetate (PAA). The 24-hour urinary excretion of PAA was measured in normal healthy volunteers and depressed patients. Patients were diagnosed according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, edition 3. In 70 percent of healthy volunteers of both sexes, the excretion of PAA ranged between 70 and 175 milligrams per 24 hours (mean = 141.1 +/- 10.2). Inpatients with major depressive disorder (unipolar type) (N = 31) excreted less PAA (68.7 +/- 7.0 milligrams per 24 hours) and 55 percent of them excreted less than 70 milligrams per 24 hours; there were no significant differences in the PAA excretion between untreated patients (N = 13) and those treated with antidepressants that were not effective (N = 18). The PAA excretion was reduced to a lesser extent in 35 less severely depressed unipolar outpatients (drug-free for 1 week) (86.3 +/- 11.8 milligrams per 24 hours). These results suggest that low PAA urinary excretion may be a reliable state marker for the diagnosis of some forms of unipolar major depressive disorders.

Septic encephalopathy. Evidence for altered phenylalanine metabolism and comparison with hepatic encephalopathy.

We elected to test the hypothesis that the metabolic encephalopathy associated with systemic sepsis may have a pathogenesis that is similar to hepatic encepathology, ie, as the consequence of hepatic dysfunction that induces alterations in synthesis of catecholic and noncatecholic neurotransmitters. Eleven patients with septic encephalopathy were compared with nine patients with septic encephalopathy and nine normal controls with respect to blood and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) amino acid profile, phenylethylamine and its metabolite phenylacetic acid, and blood ammonia. Blood and CSF levels of phenylacetic acid increased markedly in septic and hepatic encephalopathy while CSF phenylethylamine levels were not increased in either condition, presumably due to rapid turnover. The CSF concentrations of all the aromatic amino acids were increased in hepatic encephalopathy, whereas in the patients with sepsis, only phenylalanine levels were increased. Evidence of stimulated neutral amino acid transport into brain was demonstrated in hepatic not septic encephalopathy and appeared to correlate with the CSF glutamine concentration. Blood ammonia levels were increased in hepatic but not in septic encephalopathy. Our data support the hypothesis that metabolites of phenylethylamine contribute to encephalopathy in systemic sepsis and hepatic failure; however, the entities differ in other respects.

Bios data analyzer.

The Bios Data Analyzer (BDA) is a set of computer programs (CD-ROM, in Sabelli et al., Bios. A Study of Creation, 2005) for new time series analyses that detects and measures creative phenomena, namely diversification, novelty, complexes, nonrandom complexity. We define a process as creative when its time series displays these properties. They are found in heartbeat interval series, the exemplar of bios .just as turbulence is the exemplar of chaos, in many other empirical series (galactic distributions, meteorological, economic and physiological series), in biotic series generated mathematically by the bipolar feedback, and in stochastic noise, but not in chaotic attractors. Differencing, consecutive recurrence and partial autocorrelation indicate nonrandom causation, thereby distinguishing chaos and bios from random and random walk. Embedding plots distinguish causal creative processes (e.g. bios) that include both simple and complex components of variation from stochastic processes (e.g. Brownian noise) that include only complex components, and from chaotic processes that decay from order to randomness as the number of dimensions is increased. Varying bin and dimensionality show that entropy measures symmetry and variety, and that complexity is associated with asymmetry. Trigonometric transformations measure coexisting opposites in time series and demonstrate bipolar, partial, and uncorrelated opposites in empirical processes and bios, supporting the hypothesis that bios is generated by bipolar feedback, a concept which is at variance with standard concepts of polar and complementary opposites.

Biochemical plasticity of synaptic transmission: a critical review of Dale's Principle.

"Dale's Principle" states that each neuron releases one and only one synaptic transmitter. Mental disorders and behavioral drug effects are attributed to activation or blockade of one or more of these specific transmitters. A series of biochemical, electrophysiological, and behavioral studies suggests the alternative view that at each monoaminergic synapse the action of the transmitter is modulated by several metabolically related substances: amine analogs (2-phenylethylamine [PEA], p-tyramine, etc.), deaminated products (aldehydes, acids, and alcohols), and possibly also amino acid precursors. In support of this view, the authors present evidence for the presence, synthesis, metabolism, and biological activity (at the cellular level, using microelectrode techniques) of amino acid, amines, and deaminated compounds metabolically related to catecholamines and sorotonin. That neuroamino acids exert direct effects (not mediated via their amine metabolites) is illustrated by the rapid effects of microiontophoretic dopa upon cortical unit activity, and by the observation that neither the lethargic effect of 5-hydroxytryptophan (considered to support Jouvet's serotonergic theory of sleep) nor the behavioral stimulant effects of dopa (considered to support the catecholamine theory of affective behavior) are significantly prevented by L-aromatic amino acid decarboxylase inhibitors. The biological activity of the deaminated metabolites of catecholamines and serotonin is illustrated by the effects of their microiontophoretic administration upon cortical units. Further, probenecid (an inhibitor of acid transport across the blood-brain barrier) is shown to qualitatively alter the effects of intraventricularly administered PEA and of its metabolite phenylacetic acid upon visual evoked potentials. Rabbit brain is shown to synthesize a series of pharmacologically active noncatecholic phenylethylamines as by-products of catecholamine metabolism. Amine modulators such as PEA differ from typical transmitters by their ability to cross biological barriers; inhibition of decarboxylase in peripheral tissues only (using alpha-methyldopa hydrazine) markedly depletes brain PEA (but not catecholamines). Because of the homeostatic control of the rate of transmitter synthesis and disposition, physiological, pharmacological, and pathological changes may be expected to affect more the tissue levels of related modulators. This modulator theory of drug action is illustrated by the effect of several psychotropic drugs upon the brain levels of PEA and of norepinephrine. For instance, amphetamine initially decreases and then increases brain PEA levels, without altering brain norepinephrine levels. The authors propose an expanded "Dale's Principle": each neuron is specific in that it releases at all its endings the same pool of chemical messengers, composed of one transmitter and metabolically related modulators, the relative proportion of which is determined by the physiological state of the cell (biochemical plasticity)...

Biological priority and psychological supremacy: a new integrative paradigm derived from process theory.

Process theory is a comprehensive theory of physical and psychological processes that can serve to integrate biological, social, and psychodynamic psychiatry. Process theory uses concepts derived from mathematical dynamics and Heraclitus's process philosophy. It provides three novel and clinically applicable concepts: 1) biological priority and psychological supremacy (as contrasted to theories of biological or psychological primacy), 2) union of opposites (as contrasted to psychoanalytic and dialectic conflicts and to systems homeostasis), and 3) creative bifurcations (as contrasted to determinism and developmental theories).

The methylphenidate test for differentiating desipramine-responsive from nortriptyline-responsive depression.

Monitoring tricyclic antidepressant concentrations in the plasma of 43 patients with major depressive disorders indicated that some responded to imipramine or desipramine but not to amitriptyline or nortriptyline, or vice versa, even though plasma levels were within therapeutic ranges. Mood elevation by methylphenidate predicted marked improvement from treatment with imipramine or desipramine but not with amitriptyline or nortriptyline. When methylphenidate failed to improve mood, patients responded to amitriptyline or nortriptyline but not to desipramine. These results suggest differential drug responses with different tricyclic antidepressants, the clinical utility of the methylphenidate test, and the heterogeneity of depressions. The authors question the mechanism of action of nortriptyline via blockade of norepinephrine reuptake.

Clinical studies on the phenylethylamine hypothesis of affective disorder: urine and blood phenylacetic acid and phenylalanine dietary supplements.

To test the hypothesis that 2-phenylethylamine (PEA) modulates affect, plasma levels and urinary excretion of its main metabolite, phenylacetic acid (PAA), were studied in depressed and manic subjects, and the mood-elevating effects of its precursor, L-phenylalanine, were studied in depressed subjects. Mean total plasma PAA concentrations were 491.83 +/- 232.84 ng/ml in 12 healthy volunteers and 300.33 +/- 197.44 ng/ml in 23 drug-free patients with major depression. The 24-hour urinary PAA excretion was also measured in 48 healthy volunteers (141.1 +/- 10.2 mg PAA/24 hr) and in 144 patients with major depression (78.2 +/- 41.0 mg PAA/24 hr). The results suggest that low plasma and urinary PAA may be state markers for depression and are compatible with the PEA hypothesis. In further support, phenylalanine elevated mood in 31 of 40 depressives.

Lithium prevention of amphetamine-induced 'manic' excitement and of reserpine-induced 'depression' in mice: possible role of 2-phenylethylamine.

Repeated treatment of mice with lithium chloride (45 mg/kg, i.p., daily for 8 days) reduced the jumping, fighting, stereotypies, and hyperactivity induced by d-amphetamine (5 mg/kg, i.p.). Lithium also reduced the hypoactivity observed 1--3 h after reserpine (0.75 mg/kg, i.p.). In biochemical studies we found that 8-day treatment with lithium markedly reduced (to 45% of control) the recovery from brain of labelled 2-phenylethylamine (PEA) following i.p. injection of labelled L-phenylalanine, while decreasing recovery from brain of labelled PEA following its i.p. injection of 63% of control. In saline-treated mice, d-amphetamine appeared to increase PEA synthesis and to accelerate its disposition, whereas reserpine enhanced PEA synthesis and reduced disposition; all of these effects were antagonized by lithium pretreatments. Since PEA appears to be one of the most powerful behavioral stimulants among endogenous neuroamines, and because its deaminated metabolites are behavioral depressants, such antagonism of brain PEA metabolism may significantly contribute to the prophylactic action of lithium against both manic and depressive behavior.

The thermodynamics of bipolarity: a bifurcation model of bipolar illness and bipolar character and its psychotherapeutic applications.

Two models dominate current formulations of bipolar illness: the homeostatic model implicit in Freud's psychodynamics and most neuroamine deficit/excess theories; and the oscillatory model of exaggerated biological rhythms. The homeostatic model is based on the closed systems approach of classic thermodynamics, while the oscillatory model requires the open systems approach of modern thermodynamics. Here we present a thermodynamic model of bipolarity that includes both homeostatic and oscillatory features and adds the most important feature of open systems thermodynamics: the creation of novel structures in bifurcation processes. According to the proposed model, bipolarity is the result of exaggerated biological energy that augments homeostatic, oscillatory and creative psychological processes. Only low-energy closed systems tend to rest ("point attractor") and entropic disorder. Open processes containing and exchanging energy fluctuate between opposite states ("periodic attractors"); they are characteristic of most physiological rhythms and are exaggerated in bipolar subjects. At higher energies, their strong fluctuations destroy pre-existing patterns and structures, produce turbulence ("chaotic attractors"), which sudden switches between opposite states, and create new and more complex structures. Likewise, high-energy bipolars develop high spontaneity, great fluctuations between opposite moods, internal and interpersonal chaos, and enhanced creativity (personal, artistic, professional) as well as psychopathology (personality deviations, psychotic delusions). Offered here is a theoretical explanation of the dual--creative and destructive--nature of bipolarity in terms of the new enantiodromic concept of entropy generalized by process theory. Clinically, this article offers an integrative model of bipolarity that accounts for many clinical features and contributes to a definition of the bipolar personality.

Process theory as a framework for comprehensive psychodynamic formulations.

In this article, we have proposed a method for developing integrative psychiatric formulations based on process theory, as contrasted to eclectic attempts to combine separate, often disparate, theories. Congruent with chaos theory and "far from equilibrium" thermodynamics, process theory proposes that normal development and psychopathology are creative processes open to chance, choice, and meaningful coincidences and governed by harmonious and conflictual interactions between opposites. We have illustrated our method by discussing a case, previously described by Perry, Cooper, and Michels (1987) from three psychoanalytic perspectives. We interpret this case to result from a possible neuroamine depletion, poor family life, social defects, and habitual conflictual/depressive patterns of interaction.

The biotic pattern of heartbeat intervals.

The observed pattern of variation in heart rate indicates biotic patterns that change in time as portrayed by the variable morphology of recurrence plots (temporal complexity) as well as by diversification and novelty.