Optimization of enzymatic hydrolysis of shrimp waste for recovery of antioxidant activity rich protein isolate.

Shrimp waste is an important source of astaxanthin, which occur as a complex with proteins, and protein isolates as well as carotenoids are known to possess antioxidant activity. Investigations were carried out to optimize hydrolysis of shrimp waste using a bacterial protease to obtain antioxidant activity rich protein isolate. The effect of three process variables namely enzyme concentration to waste, incubation temperature and time on carotenoid recovery, protein content, trichloro acetic acid (TCA) soluble peptide content and DiPhenyl Picryl Hydrazylchloride (DPPH) scavenging activity was evaluated using a fractionally factorial design. A high correlation coefficient (>0.90) between the observed and the predicted values indicated the appropriateness of the design employed. Maximum carotenoid recovery was obtained by hydrolysing the shrimp waste with 0.3 % enzyme for 4 h. DPPH radical scavenging activity of carotenoprotein isolate was markedly affected by enzyme concentration, temperature and time of hydrolysis. The study indicated that in order to obtain the carotenoprotein from shrimp waste with higher carotenoid content hydrolysing with an enzyme concentration of 0.2-0.4 %, at lower temperature of 25-30° upto 4 h is ideal. However, in order to obtain the protein isolate with increased antioxidant activity hydrolysing at higher temperature of 50 °C, with higher enzyme concentration of 0.5 % for shorter duration is more ideal.

Extracellular chitin deacetylase production in solid state fermentation by native soil isolates of Penicillium monoverticillium and Fusarium oxysporum.

Extracellular chitin deacetylase production by native soil isolates of Penicillium monoverticillium CFR 2 and Fusarium oxysporum CFR 8 in solid state fermentation (SSF) using commercial wheat bran (CWB) and shrimp processing by-products (SPP) as solid substrate has been studied. P. monoverticillium produced maximum chitin deacetylase activity of 547.7 ± 45 and 390.2 ± 31 units/g initial dry substrate (U/g IDS) at 96 h of incubation in CWB and SPP media, respectively. While, F. oxysporum produced maximum chitin deacetylase activity of 306.4 ± 22 U/g IDS at 72 h of incubation in CWB medium and 220.1 ± 20 U/g IDS at 120 h of incubation in SPP medium. Along with chitin deacetylase, P. monoverticillium and F. oxysporum produced other chitin degrading enzymes such as endo-chitinase and ß-N-acetylhexosaminidase. P. monoverticillium produced maximum activity (U/g IDS) of endo-chitinase 4.6 ± 0.20 at 120 h incubation and ß-N-acetylhexosaminidase 82.6 ± 03 at 120 h incubation in CWB medium. While, F. oxysporum produced maximum activity (U/g IDS) of endo-chitinase 7.8 ± 0.20 at 144 h incubation and ß-N-acetylhexosaminidase 38.3 ± 02 at 120 h incubation in CWB medium. Production of extracellular chitin deacetylase by P. monoverticillium CFR 2 and F. oxysporum CFR 8 in SSF is being reported for the first time.

Potential of marine lactic acid bacteria to ferment Sargassum sp. for enhanced anticoagulant and antioxidant properties.

AIM: To evaluate the suitability of marine lactic acid bacteria (LAB) as starter cultures for Sargassum sp. fermentation to enhance its antioxidant and anticoagulation activity. METHODS AND RESULTS: LAB isolated from marine source were characterized for their ability to utilize seaweed as a sole carbon source and applied to Sargassum fermentation. Fermentation period was optimized by monitoring the fermented sample at regular interval for a period of 18 days. Results revealed that a fermentation period of 12 days was effective with maximum culture viability and other desirable characteristics such as pH, total titratable acidity, total and reducing sugars. Under optimum fermentation period, the sample fermented with P1-2CB-w1 (Enterococcus faecium) exhibited maximum anticoagulation activity and antioxidant activity. CONCLUSIONS: The study reveals a novel well-defined starter culture from marine origin intended for seaweed fermentation for recovery of bioactive molecules. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: The study provides information for the enhancement of bioactive molecules in an eco-friendly manner and also paves a way towards the development of wide range of seaweed functional foods.

Solid state fermentation production of chitin deacetylase by Colletotrichum lindemuthianum ATCC 56676 using different substrates.

Production of extracellular chitin deacetylase by Colletotrichum lindemuthianum ATCC 56676 under solid substrate fermentation was studied. The suitability of shrimp shell chitin waste (SSCW) and commercial wheat bran (CWB) was evaluated for maximal enzyme production. CWB medium (pH 6.4 ± 0.2) supplemented with chitosan favoured maximal chitin deacetylase yield of 460.4 ± 14.7 unit/g initial dry substrate (U/g IDS) at 96 h as compared to maximal yield of 392.0 ± 6.4 U/g IDS at 192 h in SSCW medium (pH 8.7 ± 0.2) at 25 °C incubation temperature and 60% (w/w) initial moisture content of medium. Along with chitin deacetylase, C. lindemuthianum ATCC 56676 produced maximum endo-chitinase (0.28 ± 0.03 U/g IDS at 144 h) and ß-N-acetylhexosaminidase (0.79 ± 0.009 U/g IDS at 192 h) in CWB medium and 0.49 ± 0.05 U/g IDS of endo-chitinase at 264 h and 0.38 ± 0.04 U/g IDS of ß-N-acetylhexosaminidase at 96 h of incubation in SSCW medium. SEM studies indicated the difference in the morphology of mycelia and hyphae of C. lindemuthianum ATCC 56676 when grown on different solid substrates. Production of chitin deacetylase by SSF is being reported for the first time.

Purification of alkaline protease from chicken intestine by aqueous two phase system of polyethylene glycol and sodium citrate.

An aqueous two phase system of polyethylene glycol (PEG) and salts was evaluated for separation and purification of alkaline proteases from chicken intestine. Among the different salts evaluated potassium phosphate and sodium citrate gave higher enzyme yield (73.5% and 69.7% respectively) and enzyme purification (5.3 and 7.4 fold) in PEG rich upper phase. Increase in concentration of sodium citrate in the system resulted in reduction in enzyme yield and enzyme purification factor, with 15% salt showing highest enzyme yield (59.8%) and purification (6.7 fold). Initial protein concentration in the system did not show any specific trend on the partition behavior of the enzyme. The temperature at which the system is incubated did not show any significant (p ≥ 0.05) effect on enzyme partition and purification. Increasing the PEG concentration in the system from 15 to 25% resulted in reduction in enzyme yield from 53.7 to 21.9% and enzyme purification from 5 fold to 1.4 fold in PEG rich upper phase. pH also had a significant (p < 0.05) effect on the partition of the enzyme to the upper phase with highest purification (3.4 fold) at pH 9.0 and higher enzyme yield (46.2%) at pH 10.

Optimization of chemical and enzymatic hydrolysis for production of chicken blood protein hydrolysate rich in angiotensin-I converting enzyme inhibitory and antioxidant activity.

Response surface methodology was adopted to optimize hydrolysis conditions for the production of antioxidant and angiotensin-I converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitory peptides from chicken red blood cells by both enzymatic and acid hydrolysis. During acid hydrolysis, temperature (P < 0.001) and acid concentration (P < 0.001) influenced the degree of hydrolysis (DH%) and 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging activity of the hydrolysate while ACE inhibitory activity of the hydrolysate was strongly influenced by acid concentration (P < 0.001). Temperature and time of hydrolysis had no effect (P > 0.05) on the ACE inhibitory activity of the hydrolysate. Acid hydrolysis conditions of 50°C, 32 h, and 0.03 N hydrochloric acid resulted in optimum DH% (33.1%), optimum DPPH scavenging activity (46%), and optimum ACE inhibitory activity (43.7%) of the hydrolysate. During enzymatic hydrolysis of chicken red blood cells, DH% was influenced by the temperature of hydrolysis (P < 0.001) and enzyme concentration (P < 0.001). DPPH scavenging of the hydrolysate was marginally (P < 0.05) influenced by the temperature of hydrolysis and ACE inhibitory activity of the hydrolysate was highly influenced by temperature (P < 0.001) and enzyme concentration (P < 0.001). Enzyme hydrolysis conditions of 60°C, 150 min, and 2.5% alcalase resulted in maximum DH% of 63.9%, while the highest DPPH scavenging activity (75%) of hydrolysate was observed under the hydrolysis conditions of 60°C, 30 min, and 2.5% of the enzyme. Optimum ACE inhibitory activity (45%) of the hydrolysate was achieved at hydrolysis conditions of 2.5% alcalase, 120 min of hydrolysis at 60°C. ACE inhibitory activity of the enzymatically hydrolyzed product was directly proportional to DH%, while DPPH activity was inversely proportional to DH%. DPPH scavenging activity of the acid hydrolysate was recorded at a lower range (34.8-56.9%) compared to the enzyme hydrolysate (40.4-77.4%), while ACE inhibitory activity of both the hydrolysates was observed in the same range (18.7-49.4 and 14.2-47.7% for acid and enzyme hydrolysate, respectively). This study indicated that chicken red blood cells could be successfully hydrolyzed by both chemical and enzymatic methods to obtain hydrolysates having antioxidant and ACE inhibitory activity.

Stability of carotenoids recovered from shrimp waste and their use as colorant in fish sausage.

The stability of carotenoids recovered from shrimp waste using organic solvents and vegetable oils as affected by antioxidants and pigment carriers was evaluated during storage under different conditions. Solvent extracted carotenoid incorporated into alginate and starch as carriers was stored in metallised polyester and polypropylene pouches. Oil extracted carotenoids were stored in transparent and amber bottles. Also the use of recovered pigments as colorants in fish sausage was evaluated. Antioxidants, packaging material and storage period had a significant effect (p≤0.001) on the reduction of carotenoid content, while type of carrier had marginal effect (p≥0.05) on solvent extracted carotenoids during storage. Carotenoid content in pigmented oil was significantly affected by antioxidants (p≤0.001), packaging material (p≤0.05) and storage period (p≤0.001). Addition of carotenoid to the sausage enhanced the sensory colour, flavour and overall quality score of sausage and the added carotenoid was stable during processing.

Radical scavenging and singlet oxygen quenching activity of extracts from Indian seaweeds.

Free radicals and singlet oxygen are responsible for oxidative stress related diseases and many natural compounds are known to have antioxidant properties. In this study, extracts from brown and red seaweeds of Indian origin were evaluated for their ability to scavenge different radicals and quench singlet oxygen. The crude extract in methanol and its fractions in different solvents were evaluated for their activity. The methanol extract and its fractions from brown seaweed exhibited higher 2,2'-azinobis(3-ethylbenzothizoline-6-sulfonic acid) radical scavenging activity with more than 90% scavenging in butanol and ethyl acetate fractions and correlated with polyphenol content. There was a significant difference (p≤0.001) in hydroxyl radical scavenging activity between different fractions of the same seaweed. Among the crude extracts, extract from Gracilaria corticata showed the highest (14.0%) activity. Crude extract from brown seaweeds showed higher peroxyl radical scavenging activity compared to red seaweeds. In fractions from brown seaweed extracts, highest activity was observed in ethyl acetate fraction (>88%) followed by hexane fraction (>40 %). Ethyl acetate fraction from crude extract showed higher inhibitory activity against hemoglobin induced linoleic acid oxidation. Singlet oxygen quenching activity of the crude extract from brown seaweed was lower (<13%) compared to red seaweeds (16.4-20.5%).

Lipid classes and fatty acid profile of selected Indian fresh water fishes.

Lipid extracts from meat, head and viscera of Indian fresh water fishes, viz., catla, rohu, mrigal, common carp and tilapia were analyzed for lipid class distribution and fatty acid profile. The yield of meat ranged from 66.0-79.5% and total lipid content in meat was 0.8-3.8%. The total lipid content was higher (>4.0%) in head and viscera. Neutral lipids constituted 71.5-93.3% of the total lipid extract. Higher glycolipid content of 25.2% was observed in lipid extract from meat of common carp and higher phospholipid content (13.7%) was observed in lipid extract from meat of mrigal. Hydrocarbons, sterolesters and triacylglycerol were the major fractions of neutral lipids. Unsaturated fatty acids dominated in all the samples. Palmitic and oleic acids were the major fatty acids found in all the lipid extracts. Docosahexaenoic acid content was higher than 3% in lipid extract from meat of all the fishes. However, in most of the fishes, the content of eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid were higher in visceral lipids.

Purification and Characterization of Agarase from Marine Bacteria Acinetobacter sp. PS12B and Its Use for Preparing Bioactive Hydrolysate from Agarophyte Red Seaweed Gracilaria verrucosa.

Acinetobacter strain PS12B was isolated from marine sediment and was found to be a good candidate to degrade agar and produce agarase enzyme. The extracellular agarase enzyme from strain PS12B was purified by ammonium sulfate precipitation followed by DEAE-cellulose ion-exchange chromatography. The specific activity of the crude enzyme which was 1.52 U increased to 45.76 U, after two-stage purification, with an enzyme yield of 9.76%. Purified enzyme had a molecular mass of 24 kDa. The optimum pH and temperature for activity of purified agarase were found to be 8.0 and 40 °C, respectively. The Km and Vmax values for agarase were 4.69 mg/ml and 0.5 µmol/min, respectively. Treatment with EDTA reduced the agarase activity by 58% at 5 mM concentration. The enzyme activity was stimulated by the presence of Fe2+, Mn2+, and Ca2+ ions while reducing reagents (ß-mercaptoethanol and dithiothreitol, DTT) enhanced its activity by 30-40%. The purified agarase exhibited tolerance to both detergents and organic solvents. Major hydrolysis products of agar were DP4 and also a mixture of longer oligosaccharides DP6 and DP7. The enzyme hydrolysed seaweed (Gracilaria verrucosa) exhibited strong antioxidant activity in vitro. Successful hydrolysis of seaweed indicates the potential use of the enzyme to produce seaweed hydrolysate having health benefits as well as the industrial application like the production of biofuels.

Recovery of carotenoids from ensilaged shrimp waste.

A method for fermentation of shrimp waste was standardized using a statistically designed experiment, with respect to three variables namely, levels of glucose and starter culture and time of fermentation. The optimized levels for achieving the desired pH was 20.5% glucose, 19.5x10(4)cells/g of starter culture and fermentation time of 70h. Recovery of carotenoids from fermented and acid ensiled shrimp waste was assessed during 75 days of storage. Acid ensilaging resulted in the reduction of solvent extraction yield of carotenoids from 43.09 to 26.76 microg/g by the end of 75 days of storage. The yield of oil extracted carotenoids was higher in both types of silage at the end of 75 days storage compared to the initial yield, being 31.30 microg/g in fermented silage and 26.18 microg/g in acid silage. The results indicated the usefulness of fermentation as a method for stabilization and recovery of carotenoids in the shrimp waste.

Recovery of carotenoids from shrimp waste in organic solvents.

Shrimp waste, which is produced in large quantities in the Indian seafood processing industries, is one of the important sources of natural carotenoids. Studies were carried out to assess the extractability of shrimp waste carotenoids in different organic solvents and solvent mixtures and to optimize the extraction conditions for maximum yield. A 50:50 mixture of isopropyl alcohol and hexane gave the highest (43.9 microg/g waste) carotenoid extraction yield compared to acetone, methanol, ethanol, isopropyl alcohol, ethyl acetate, ethyl methyl ketone, petroleum ether, and hexane individually and to a mixture of acetone and hexane. Extraction conditions such as percentage of hexane in the solvent mixture of isopropyl alcohol and hexane, ratio of solvent to waste and number of extractions was optimized using a statistically designed experiment. The optimized conditions for maximum yield of carotenoids were 60% hexane in solvent mixture, solvent mixture to waste ratio of 5:1 in each extraction and three extractions. A regression equation for predicting the carotenoid yield as a function of three processing variable (hexane % in solvent mixture, solvent-to-waste ratio and number of extractions) was derived by statistical analysis, and a model with predictive ability of 0.98 was obtained.

Process optimization for extraction of carotenoids from shrimp waste with vegetable oils.

Shrimp waste is an important source of natural carotenoid. Studies were carried out to determine the extraction yield of shrimp waste carotenoids in different vegetable oils. Highest yield was obtained by extraction using refined sunflower oil compared to groundnut oil, gingelly oil, mustard oil, soy oil, coconut oil and rice bran oil. The extraction yield of carotenoids in sunflower oil was significantly influenced by level of oil to waste (p < 0.05), time (p < 0.01) and temperature (p < 0.001) of heating waste with oil before centrifugation to separate pigmented oil. A regression equation was derived for carotenoid yield as a function of time of heating, temperature of heating and oil level to waste. The optimized conditions for extraction of shrimp waste carotenoids in sunflower oil were determined to be oil level to waste of 2, temperature of 70 degrees C and heating time of 150 min.

Reduction in microbial load on buffalo meat by hot water dip treatment.

Buffalo meat cuts from shoulder and leg portions were subjected to hot water treatment (70 and 80 °C for 30 and 60 s). Meat cuts dipped in water at ambient temperature served as control. The surface samples were analysed for microbial load, visual score for colour and numerical values of colour parameters (a(∗), b(∗), L(∗), W). Control samples of shoulder and leg meat had a mean total plate count (TPC) of 4.15 log CFU cm(-2) and 3.81 log CFU cm(-2) and enterobacteriaceae counts of 2.33 log CFU cm(-2) and 2.26 log CFU cm(-2), respectively. Treatment of meat cuts with hot water reduced the TPC significantly (p < 0.001)with a highest reduction of 1.60 log in leg meat and 1.80 log in shoulder meat at 80 °C. Hot water treatment of meat eliminated enterobacteriaceae. Although, there was discolouration of meat by hot water treatment, the colour regained during storage of meat at refrigerated temperature (4 ±1 °C). Hot water treatment of meat resulted in loss of redness (a(∗)), increase in lightness (L(∗)) and whiteness (W). After storage, a(∗) increased and L(∗) and W decreased. The results suggested that the dip treatment with hot water reduces the initial bacterial load substantially and improves the microbiological quality of buffalo meat without causing any permanent discolouration.

Quality of buffalo meat burger containing legume flours as binders.

The effect of addition of different decorticated legume flours, viz., soya bean, bengal gram, green gram and black gram, on the quality of buffalo meat burger was studied. The burgers consisted of optimized quantities of roasted or unroasted legume flour, spices and common salt. Inclusion of roasted black gram flour registered the highest yield of 95.7%, lowest shrinkage of 5% and lowest fat absorption of 26.6% on frying. Protein content of 18-20% was highest in the soya flour formulation. Free fatty acid (FFA) values (as% oleic) increased from 14.3 to 17.3 in freshly prepared samples (before frying) to 16.0-19.4 in 4 m frozen (-16±2 °C) stored samples and fried samples had about 25% lower FFA values. Formulations with roasted flours registered lower thiobarbituric acid (TBA) values (mg malonaldehyde/kg sample) of 0.6-1.5 as against 0.6-2.1 for unroasted flours before frying. The burgers prepared with any of these binders were organoleptically acceptable even after storage at -16±2 °C for 4 months., However, the burger with black gram dhal (dehulled split legume) flour had better sensory quality attributes compared to other legumes.

Antioxidant and anticoagulant activity of polyphenol and polysaccharides from fermented Sargassum sp.

The current investigation was carried out with an objective of determining the structural characteristic of polysaccharides extracted from fermented Sargassum sp. to be used as potent natural heparin substitute anticoagulant compound. Sargassum sp. fermented with marine lactic acid bacteria was initially subjected to ethanol precipitation for the recovery of bioactive compounds. Antioxidant activity was maximum in the soluble fraction whereas anticoagulant activity was observed to be high in the precipitate which correlated with the increased polyphenols and total sugars respectively. The precipitate was purified by anion exchange chromatography and the fractions collected were analyzed for total sugars and anticoagulant activity. There was 2.6-3.9-folds increase in anticoagulant activity in the final purified fractions, with a maximum activity in case of sample fermented with Enterococcus faecium (6.7±0.22 IU/mg). Structural elucidation of potential anticoagulant polysaccharide by Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FT-IR) and Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) analysis indicated the presence of alginate rich in mannuronic acid.

An autolytic process for recovery of antioxidant activity rich carotenoprotein from shrimp heads.

Studies were carried out to utilize in situ proteases of shrimp heads to recover carotenoproteins possessing antioxidant activity. Highest protease activity of the buffer extract was found at pH 8.0 (9.85 ± 0.61 units). The protease activity increased with temperature up to 50°C and reduced thereafter with highest activity being 19.32 ± 2.0 units. Thus, the autolysis of shrimp heads for recovery of carotenoprotein was carried out at pH 8.0 and at 50°C. Waste to buffer ratio had a significant (p < 0.05) effect on recovery of carotenoids in carotenoprotein filtrate with a maximum of 58.5 ± 6.4% recovery with a waste to buffer ratio of 1:2.5 (w:v). The carotenoid recovery increased significantly to 63.4% ± 3.6% at the end of a 4-h autolysis. The studies on combined effect of waste to buffer ratio and autolysis time indicated increase in protein recovery with increase in waste to buffer ratio but not with autolysis time. DPPH scavenging activity of the carotenoprotein isolate increased with autolysis time up to 100 min, and thereafter, reduced above 160 min of autolysis time. With increase in waste to buffer ratio, the scavenging activity increased, reaching more than 12.5 mg TBHQ equivalent/mg protein at waste to buffer ratio of 1:5. The optimum autolysis condition for obtaining antioxidant activity rich carotenoprotein from shrimp heads was found to be waste to buffer (pH 8.0) ratio of 1:5 and an autolysis time of 2 h at 50°C. The isolated carotenoprotein was found to have antioxidant activity with respect to singlet oxygen quenching, reducing power and metal chelating activity.

Thermoactive ß-N-acetylhexosaminidase production by a soil isolate of Penicillium monoverticillium CFR 2 under solid state fermentation: parameter optimization and application for N-acetyl chitooligosaccharides preparation from chitin.

Two fungal strains were evaluated for ß-N-acetylhexosaminidase production by solid state fermentation using different agro-industrial residues such as commercial wheat bran (CWB) and shrimp shell chitin waste (SSCW), of which Penicillium monoverticillium CFR 2 a local soil isolate showed significantly (P ≤ 0.001) higher ß-N-acetylhexosaminidase activity on CWB medium as compared with the activity of Fusarium oxysporum CFR 8. Fermentation parameters such as incubation temperature, incubation time, initial moisture content and inoculum concentration were optimized by statistically designed experiments, using 3**(4-1) fractional factorial design of Response Surface Methodology. The high R(2) (0.9512) observed during validation experiment showed the usefulness of the model. Highest level of enzyme activity (311.84 U/g IDS) was predicted at 75% (w/w) initial moisture content, 26 °C incubation temperature, 168 h incubation time and initial inoculum, at the highest concentration tested (2.95 ml spore suspension/5 g substrate). Statistical optimization yielded a 4.5 fold increase in ß-N-acetylhexosaminidase activity. The crude ß-N-acetylhexosaminidase showed optimum temperature of 57 ± 1 °C and pH of 3.6 and retained 50% activity after 1 h of incubation at 57 ± 1 °C. SDS-PAGE zymogram revealed crude enzyme was a monomer with an apparent molecular weight ~110 kDa. The crude enzyme formed 6.81 ± 0.03 mM/l of N-acetyl chitooligosaccharides from colloidal chitin in 24 h of incubation. HPLC analysis revealed hydrolysate contained 37.57% N-acetyl chitotriose and 62.43% N-acetyl chitohexose, indicating its potential for specific N-acetyl chitooligosaccharides production.

Isolation and characterization of potential lactic acid bacteria (LAB) from freshwater fish processing wastes for application in fermentative utilisation of fish processing waste

Proteolytic and/or lipolytic lactic acid bacteria (LAB) were isolated from visceral wastes of different fresh water fishes. LAB count was found to be highest in case of visceral wastes of Mrigal (5.88 log cfu/g) and lowest in that of tilapia (4.22 log cfu/g). Morphological, biochemical and molecular characterization of the selected LAB isolates were carried out. Two isolates FJ1 (E. faecalis NCIM5367) and LP3 (P. acidilactici NCIM5368) showed both proteolytic and lipolytic properties. All the six native isolates selected for characterization showed antagonistic properties against several human pathogens. All the native isolates were sensitive to antibiotics cephalothin and clindamycin; and, resistant to cotrimoxazole and vancomycin. Considering individually, P. acidilactici FM37, P. acidilactici MW2 and E. faecalis FD3 were sensitive to erythromycin. The two strains FJ1 (E. faecalis NCIM 5367) and LP3 (P. acidilactici NCIM 5368) that had both proteolytic and lipolytic properties have the potential for application in fermentative recovery of lipids and proteins from fish processing wastes.