Bonding in Barium Boryloxides, Siloxides, Phenoxides and Silazides: A Comparison with the Lighter Alkaline Earths.

Barium complexes ligated by bulky boryloxides [OBR2 ]- (where R=CH(SiMe3 )2 , 2,4,6-i Pr3 -C6 H2 or 2,4,6-(CF3 )3 -C6 H2 ), siloxide [OSi(SiMe3 )3 ]- , and/or phenoxide [O-2,6-Ph2 -C6 H3 ]- , have been prepared. A diversity of coordination patterns is observed in the solid state for both homoleptic and heteroleptic complexes, with coordination numbers ranging between 2 and 4. The identity of the bridging ligand in heteroleptic dimers [Ba(µ2 -X1 )(X2 )]2 depends largely on the given pair of ligands X1 and X2 . Experimentally, the propensity to fill the bridging position increases according to [OB{CH(SiMe3 )2 }2 )]- <[N(SiMe3 )2 ]- <[OSi(SiMe3 )3 ]- <[O(2,6-Ph2 -C6 H3 )]- <[OB(2,4,6-i Pr3 -C6 H2 )2 ]- . This trend is the overall expression of 3 properties: steric constraints, electronic density and σ- and π-donating capability of the negatively charged atom, and ability to generate Ba ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ F, Ba ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ C(π) or Ba ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ H-C secondary interactions. The comparison of the structural motifs in the complexes [Ae{µ2 -N(SiMe3 )2 }(OB{CH(SiMe3 )2 }2 )]2 (Ae = Mg, Ca, Sr and Ba) suggest that these observations may be extended to all alkaline earths. DFT calculations highlight the largely prevailing ionic character of ligand-Ae bonding in all compounds. The ionic character of the Ae-ligand bond encourages bridging coordination, whereas the number of bridging ligands is controlled by steric factors. DFT computations also indicate that in [Ba(µ2 -X1 )(X2 )]2 heteroleptic dimers, ligand predilection for bridging vs. terminal positions is dictated by the ability to establish secondary interactions between the metals and the ligands.

Barium-Catalysed Dehydrocoupling of Hydrosilanes and Borinic Acids: A Mechanistic Insight.

Invited for the cover of this issue are the groups of Yann Sarazin at the University of Rennes and Laura Falivene at the King Abdullah University of Science and Technology. The image depicts two barium figures working in tandem to mimic the dinuclear nature of the active species in the catalytic cycle described in the manuscript. Read the full text of the article at 10.1002/chem.201904933.

Barium-Catalysed Dehydrocoupling of Hydrosilanes and Borinic Acids: A Mechanistic Insight.

Two very rare cases of barium boryloxides, the homoleptic [Ba(OB{CH(SiMe3 )2 }2 )2 ⋅C7 H8 ] and the heteroleptic [{LONO4 }BaOB{CH(SiMe3 )2 }2 ] stabilised by the multidentate aminoetherphenolate {LONO4 }- , are presented, and their structural properties are discussed. The electron-deficient [Ba(OB{CH(SiMe3 )2 }2 )2 ⋅C7 H8 ] shows, in particular, resilient η6 -coordination of the toluene molecule. Together with its amido parents [Ba{N(SiMe3 )2 }2 ⋅thf2 ] and [Ba{N(SiMe3 )2 }2 ]2 , this complex catalyses the fast and chemoselective dehydrocoupling of borinic acids R2 BOH and hydrosilanes HSiR'3 , yielding borasiloxanes R2 BOSiR'3 in a controlled fashion. The assessment of substrate scope indicates that, for now, the reaction is limited to bulky borinic acids. Kinetic analysis shows that the rate-limiting step of the catalytic manifold traverses a dinuclear transition state. A detailed mechanistic scenario is proposed on the basis of DFT computations, the results of which are fully consistent with experimental data. It consists of a stepwise process with rate-determining nucleophilic attack of a metal-bound O-atom onto the incoming hydrosilane, involving throughout dinuclear catalytically active species.

Synthesis of Bridged Tetrahydrobenzo[b]azepines and Derivatives through an Aza-Piancatelli Cyclization/Michael Addition Sequence.

Herein, we report the preparation of bridged tetrahydrobenzo[b]azepines, which was accomplished through an aza-Piancatelli cyclization/Michael addition sequence in a one-pot fashion from readily available precursors. It is noteworthy that a general method to access these scaffolds was hitherto unprecedented. Additionally, the multifaceted aspects of this process have been exemplified through its application to the synthesis of 2-azabicyclo[3.2.1]octanes and bridged tetrahydrobenzo[b]oxepines, along with post-derivatizations.

Bis(imino)carbazolate: A Master Key for Barium Chemistry.

Reported here is a readily available bis(imino)carbazole-based proligand that constitutes a convenient entry point into the challenging synthetic molecular chemistry of barium. It enables the preparation of rare or even, up to now, unknown, solution-stable heteroleptic barium complexes. The syntheses and structural features for the first molecular barium fluoride and the first barium stannylide, with an unsupported Ba-Sn bond, are described, along with other carbazolate barium species: an amide (both a remarkably stable starting material and an excellent hydrophosphination precatalyst), iodide, and silanylide. DFT analysis of bonding patterns in the barium stannylide and barium silanylide highlights a prevailingly ionic barium-tetrelide bond with a small covalent contribution.

Barium Siloxides and Catalysed Formation of Si-O-Si' Motifs.

The first unsupported barium siloxide, the homoleptic dimer [Ba2 {µ2 -OSi(SiMe3 )3 }3 {OSi(SiMe3 )3 }], is presented, and its structural features are discussed in the light of DFT computations. This complex, together with the related [Ba{µ2 -OSi(SiMe3 )3 }{N(SiMe3 )2 }]2 and their parent [Ba{N(SiMe3 )2 }2 ]2 , mediates the formation of asymmetric siloxanes R3 Si-O-SiR'3 through the first case of main group metal-mediated dehydrocoupling of silanols and hydrosilanes. Early kinetic analysis highlights an unusual catalytic manifold.

Metal⋠⋠⋠F-C Bonding in Low-Coordinate Alkaline Earth Fluoroarylamides.

A set of calcium and barium complexes containing the fluoroarylamide N(C6 F5 )2 - is presented. These compounds illustrate the key role of stabilising M⋅⋅⋅F-C secondary interactions in the construction of low-coordinate alkaline earth complexes. The nature of Ca⋅⋅⋅F-C bonding in calcium complexes is examined in the light of structural data, bond valence sum (BVS) analysis and DFT computations. The molecular structures of [Ca{N(C6 F5 )2 }2 (Et2 O)2 ] (4'), [Ca{µ-N(SiMe3 )2 }{N(C6 F5 )2 }]2 (52 ), [Ba{µ-N(C6 F5 )2 }{N(C6 F5 )2 }⋅toluene]2 (62 ), [{BDIDiPP }CaN(C6 F5 )2 ]2 (72 ), [{N^NDiPP }CaN(C6 F5 )2 ]2 (82 ), and [Ca{µ-OB(CH(SiMe3 )2 )2 }{N(C6 F5 )2 }]2 (92 ), where {BDIDiPP }- and {N^NDiPP }- are the bidentate ligands CH[C(CH3 )NDipp]2 - and DippNC6 H4 CNDipp- (Dipp=2,6-iPr2 -C6 H3 ), are detailed. Complex 62 displays strong Ba⋅⋅⋅F-C contacts at around 2.85 Å. The calcium complexes feature also very short intramolecular Ca-F interatomic distances at around 2.50 Å. In addition, the three-coordinate complexes 72 and 82 form dinuclear structures due to intermolecular Ca⋅⋅⋅F-C contacts. BVS analysis shows that Ca⋅⋅⋅F-C interactions contribute to 15-20 % of the bonding pattern around calcium. Computations demonstrate that Ca⋅⋅⋅F-C bonding is mostly electrostatic, but also contains a non-negligible covalent contribution. They also suggest that Ca⋅⋅⋅F-C are the strongest amongst the range of weak Ca⋅⋅⋅X (X=F, H, Cπ ) secondary interactions, due to the high positive charge of Ca2+ which favours electrostatic interactions.

Lead(II) Siloxides.

Although PbII -siloxides have been known until now to decompose to oxoclusters, here [{ROF }PbOSi(SiMe3 )3 ] (ROF =fluoroalkoxide) and, most importantly, [Pb2 {OSi(SiMe3 )3 }{µ2 -OSi(SiMe3 )3 }3 ], are presented. The unusual bonding pattern in the latter thermally stable dinuclear complex was investigated by crystallographic and computational methods. Its stability is much higher than that of the simple, yet elusive "[Pb(OSiPh3 )2 ]", for which decomposition pathways towards [Pb4 (µ4 -O)(µ2 -OSiPh3 )6 ] have been clearly established.

Low-Coordinate Barium Boryloxides: Synthesis and Dehydrocoupling Catalysis for the Production of Borasiloxanes.

The first soluble barium boryloxides [Ba]- OB{CH(SiMe3 )2 } are presented. These mono- or dinuclear complexes feature low coordination numbers, as low as two for [Ba(OB{CH(SiMe3 )2 }2 )2 ], which is further stabilized by intra- and intermolecular Ba⋅⋅⋅H3 C agostic interactions. Barium boryloxides and the parent [Ba{N(SiMe3 )2 }2 ⋅(thf)2 ] catalyze the dehydrocoupling of borinic acids with hydrosilanes, providing borasiloxanes under mild conditions.

Alkaline-Earth-Catalysed Cross-Dehydrocoupling of Amines and Hydrosilanes: Reactivity Trends, Scope and Mechanism.

Alkaline-earth (Ae=Ca, Sr, Ba) complexes are shown to catalyse the chemoselective cross-dehydrocoupling (CDC) of amines and hydrosilanes. Key trends were delineated in the benchmark couplings of Ph3 SiH with pyrrolidine or tBuNH2 . Ae{E(SiMe3)2}2 ⋅(THF)x (E=N, CH; x=2-3) are more efficient than {N^N}Ae{E(SiMe3)2}⋅(THF)n (E=N, CH; n=1-2) complexes (where {N^N}(-) ={ArN(o-C6H4)C(H)=NAr}(-) with Ar=2,6-iPr2 -C6H3) bearing an iminoanilide ligand, and alkyl precatalysts are better than amido analogues. Turnover frequencies (TOFs) increase in the order Ca30 products) includes diamines and di(hydrosilane)s. Kinetic analysis of the Ba-promoted CDC of pyrrolidine and Ph3SiH shows that 1) the kinetic law is rate=k[Ba](1) [amine](0) [hydrosilane](1), 2) electron-withdrawing p-substituents on the arylhydrosilane improve the reaction rate and 3) a maximal kinetic isotopic effect (kSiH/kSiD =4.7) is seen for Ph3SiX (X=H, D). DFT calculations identified the prevailing mechanism; instead of an inaccessible σ-bond-breaking metathesis pathway, the CDC appears to follow a stepwise reaction path with N-Si bond-forming nucleophilic attack of the catalytically competent Ba pyrrolide onto the incoming silane, followed by rate limiting hydrogen-atom transfer to barium. The participation of a Ba silyl species is prevented energetically. The reactivity trend Ca

Sequential Barium-Catalysed N-H/H-Si Dehydrogenative Cross-Couplings: Cyclodisilazanes versus Linear Oligosilazanes.

Starting from Ph3 SiH, the barium precatalyst Ba[CH(SiMe3 )2 ]2 ⋅(THF)3 was used to produce the disilazane Ph3 SiN(Bn)SiPh2 NHBn (4) by sequential N-H/H-Si dehydrogenative couplings with BnNH2 and Ph2 SiH2 . Substrate scope was extended to other amines and hydrosilanes. This smooth protocol gives quantitative yields and full chemoselectivity. Compound 4 and the intermediates Ph3 SiNHBn and Ph3 SiN(Bn)SiHPh2 were structurally characterised. Further attempts at chain extension by dehydrocoupling of Ph2 SiH2 with 4 instead resulted in cyclisation of this compound, forming the cyclodisilazane c-(Ph2 Si-NBn)2 (5) which was crystallographically authenticated. The ring-closure mechanism leading to 5 upon release of C6 H6 was determined by complementary experimental and theoretical (DFT) investigations. Ba[CH(SiMe3 )2 ]2 ⋅(THF)3 and 4 react to afford the reactive Ba{N(Bn)SiPh2 N(Bn)SiPh3 }2 , which was characterised in situ by NMR spectroscopy. Next, in a stepwise process, intramolecular nucleophilic attack of the metal-bound amide on the terminal silicon atom generates a five-coordinate silicate. It is followed by turnover-limiting ß-C6 H5 transfer to barium; this releases 5 and forms a transient [Ba]-Ph species, which undergoes aminolysis to regenerate [Ba]-N(Bn)SiPh2 N(Bn)SiPh3 . DFT computations reveal that the irreversible production of 5 through such a stepwise ring-closure mechanism is much more kinetically facile (ΔG≠ =26.2 kcal mol-1 ) than an alternative σ-metathesis pathway (ΔG≠ =48.2 kcal mol-1 ).

Alkaline Earth-Olefin Complexes with Secondary Interactions.

Strontium and calcium (alkaline earth: Ae) olefin complexes stabilised by secondary Ae⋅⋅⋅F-C and ß-agostic Ae⋅⋅⋅H-Si interactions are presented. Olefin coordination onto the alkaline earths is plain in the solid state, and it is thermodynamically favoured over the coordination of THF. The existence of the Ae⋅⋅⋅olefin interactions is corroborated by solution NMR data and DFT computations. The coordination mode of the olefin varies with steric effects and, if enforced, olefin dissociation can be compensated by the other non-covalent interactions, as supported by DFT computations.

Calcium, Strontium and Barium Homogeneous Catalysts for Fine Chemicals Synthesis.

The large alkaline earths (Ae), calcium, strontium and barium, have in the past 15 years yielded a brand new generation of heteroleptic molecular catalysts for the production of fine chemicals. However, the integrity of these complexes is often plagued by ligand redistribution equilibria in solution. This personal account retraces the paths followed in our research group towards the design of stable heteroleptic alkalino-earth complexes, including the use of intramolecular noncovalent Ae···H-Si and Ae···F-C interactions. Their implementation as homogenous precatalysts for reactions such as the intramolecular and intermolecular hydroamination and hydrophosphination of activated alkenes, the hydrophosphonylation of ketones, and the dehydrogenative coupling of amines and hydrosilanes that enable the efficient and controlled formations of CP, CN, or SiN σ-bonds, is presented in a synthetic perspective that highlights their overall outstanding catalytic performance.

Tailored Cyclic and Linear Polycarbosilazanes by Barium-Catalyzed N-H/H-Si Dehydrocoupling Reactions.

Ba[CH(SiMe3 )2 ]2 (THF)3 catalyzes the fast and controlled dehydrogenative polymerization of Ph2 SiH2 and p-xylylenediamine to afford polycarbosilazanes. The structure (cyclic versus linear; end-groups) and molecular weight of the macromolecules can be tuned by adjusting the Ph2 SiH2 /diamine feed ratio. A detailed analysis of the resulting materials (mol. wt up to ca. 10 000 g mol(-1) ) is provided.

Beyond stereoselectivity, switchable catalysis: some of the last frontier challenges in ring-opening polymerization of cyclic esters.

Metal-based catalysts and initiators have played a pivotal role in the ring-opening polymerization (ROP) of cyclic esters, thanks to their high activity and remarkable ability to control precisely the architectures of the resulting polyesters in terms of molar mass, dispersity, microstructure, or tacticity. Today, after two decades of extensive research, the field is slowly reaching maturity. However, several challenges remain, while original concepts have emerged around new types or new applications of catalysis. This Review is not intended to comprehensively cover all of these aspects. Rather, it provides a personal overview of the very recent progress achieved in some selected, important aspects of ROP catalysis--stereocontrol and switchable catalysis. Hence, the first part addresses the development of new metal-based catalysts for the isoselective ROP of racemic lactide towards stereoblock copolymers, and the use of syndioselective ROP metal catalysts to control the monomer sequence in copolymers. A second part covers the development of ROP catalysts--primarily metal-based catalysts, but also organocatalysts--that can be externally regulated by the use of chemical or photo stimuli to switch them between two states with different catalytic abilities. Current challenges and opportunities are highlighted.

Highly active, chemo- and regioselective Yb(II) and Sm(II) catalysts for the hydrophosphination of styrene with phenylphosphine.

Stable heteroleptic amido Yb(II) and Sm(II) complexes bearing aminoether-phenolate ligands and devoid of coordinated solvent have been structurally characterized. They afford highly active, chemoselective and, in the case of monoadditions, 100 % anti-Markovnikov regiospecific catalysts (down to 0.04 mol % loading) for the hydrophosphination of styrene with PhPH2 under mild conditions.

Highly fluorinated tris(indazolyl)borate silylamido complexes of the heavier alkaline earth metals: synthesis, characterization, and efficient catalytic intramolecular hydroamination.

Heteroleptic silylamido complexes of the heavier alkaline earth elements calcium and strontium containing the highly fluorinated 3-phenyl hydrotris(indazolyl)borate {F12-Tp(4Bo, 3Ph)}(-) ligand have been synthesized by using salt metathesis reactions. The homoleptic precursors [Ae{N(SiMe3)2}2] (Ae = Ca, Sr) were treated with [Tl(F12-Tp(4Bo, 3Ph))] in pentane to form the corresponding heteroleptic complexes [(F12-Tp(4Bo, 3Ph))Ae{N(SiMe3)2}] (Ae = Ca (1); Sr (3)). Compounds 1 and 3 are inert towards intermolecular redistribution. The molecular structures of 1 and 3 have been determined by using X-ray diffraction. Compound 3 exhibits a Sr⋅⋅⋅MeSi agostic distortion. The synthesis of the homoleptic THF-free compound [Ca{N(SiMe2H)2}2] (4) by transamination reaction between [Ca{N(SiMe3)2}2] and HN(SiMe2H)2 is also reported. This precursor constitutes a convenient starting material for the subsequent preparation of the THF-free complex [(F12-Tp(4Bo, 3Ph))Ca{N(SiMe2H)2}] (5). Compound 5 is stabilized in the solid state by a Ca⋅⋅⋅ß-Si-H agostic interaction. Complexes 1 and 3 have been used as precatalysts for the intramolecular hydroamination of 2,2-dimethylpent-4-en-1-amine. Compound 1 is highly active, converting completely 200 equivalents of aminoalkene in 16 min with 0.50 mol % catalyst loading at 25 °C.

Barium-mediated cross-dehydrocoupling of hydrosilanes with amines: a theoretical and experimental approach.

Alkaline-earth (most prominently barium) complexes of the type [Ae{N(SiMe3 )2 }2 ⋅(THF)x ] and [{N^N}Ae{N(SiMe3 )2 }⋅(THF)x ] are very active and productive precatalysts (TON=396, TOF up to 3600 h(-1) ; Ca

Chiral (1,2)-diphenylethylene-salen complexes of triel metals: coordination patterns and mechanistic considerations in the isoselective ROP of lactide.

The synthesis of enantiomerically pure aluminium, gallium and indium complexes supported by chiral (R,R)-((HH)ONNO(HH)) (1), (R,R)-((MeH)ONNO(HMe)) (2), (R,R)-((tButBu)ONNO(tButBu)) (3), (R,R)-((MeNO2)ONNO(MeNO2)) (4), (R,R)-((HOMe)ONNO(HOMe)) (5) and (R,R)-((ClCl)ONNO(ClCl)) (6) (1,2)-diphenylethylene-salen ligands is described. Several of these complexes have been crystallographically authenticated, which highlights a diversity of coordination patterns. Whereas all Ga complexes form [Ga2(CH2SiMe3)4(ONNO)] bimetallic species (ONNO = 1-3), aluminium [AlR(ONNO)] (R = Me, CH2SiMe3) and indium [In(CH2SiMe3)(ONNO)] derivatives are monometallic for ONNO = 1, 2 and 4-6, and only form the bimetallic complexes [Al2R4(ONNO)] and [In2(CH2SiMe3)4(ONNO)] for the most sterically crowded ligand 3. The [AlMe(ONNO)] complexes react with iPrOH to give [AlOiPr(ONNO)] complexes that are robust towards further iPrOH. The [In(CH2SiMe3)(ONNO)] congeners are inert towards excess alcohol, whereas the Ga compounds decompose easily. All these alkyl complexes, as well as the [AlOiPr(ONNO)] derivatives, catalyse the ring-opening polymerisation (ROP) of racemic lactide (rac-LA). The [AlMe(ONNO)] complexes require additional alcohol to afford controlled reactions, but [AlOiPr(ONNO)] complexes are single-component catalysts for the isoselective ROP of rac-LA, with values of Pm in the range 0.80-0.90. Experimental evidence unexpectedly shows that chain-end control leads to the isoselectivity of these aluminium catalysts; also, the more crowded the coordination sphere, the higher the isoselectivity. The bimetallic Ga complexes do not afford controlled reactions, but the binary [In(ONNO)(CH2SiMe3)/(PhCH2OH)] systems competently mediate non-stereoselective ROP; evidence is given that an activated monomer mechanism is at work. Kinetic studies show that catalytic activity decreases when electronic density and steric congestion at the metal atom increase.

C(sp3)-H bond activation with triel metals: indium and gallium zwitterions through internal hydride abstraction in rigid salan ligands.

The hydropyrimidine salan (salan=N,N'-dimethyl-N,N'-bis[(2-hydroxyphenyl)methylene]-1,2-diaminoethane) proteo-ligands with a rigid backbone {ON^(CH2)^NO}H2 react with M(CH2SiMe3)3 (M=Ga, In) to yield the zwitterions {ON^(CH(+))^NO}M(-)(CH2SiMe3)2 (M=Ga, 2; In, 3) by abstraction of a hydride from the ligand backbone followed by elimination of dihydrogen. By contrast, with Al2Me6, the neutral-at-metal bimetallic complex [{ON^(CH2)^NO}AlMe]2 ([1]2) is obtained quantitatively. The formation of indium zwitterions is also observed with sterically more encumbered ligands containing o-Me substituents on the phenolic rings, or an N (CHPh) N moiety in the heterocyclic core. Overall, the ease of C(sp3)-H bond activation follows the order Al≪Ga