Incidence, treatment and outcome of central nervous system relapse in adult acute lymphoblastic leukaemia patients treated front-line with paediatric-inspired regimens: A retrospective multicentre Campus ALL study.

Within the Campus ALL network we analyzed the incidence, characteristics, treatment and outcome of a central nervous system (CNS) relapse in 1035 consecutive adult acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) patients treated frontline with pediatric-inspired protocols between 2009 and 2020. Seventy-one patients (6.8%) experienced a CNS recurrence, more frequently in T- (28/278; 10%) than in B-ALL (43/757; 5.7%) (p = 0.017). An early CNS relapse-< 12 months from diagnosis-was observed in 41 patients. In multivariate analysis, risk factors for early CNS relapse included T-cell phenotype (p = <0.001), hyperleucocytosis >100 × 109 /L (p<0.001) and male gender (p = 0.015). Treatment was heterogeneous, including chemotherapy, radiotherapy, intrathecal therapy and novel agents. A complete remission (CR) was obtained in 39 patients (55%) with no differences among strategies. After CR, 26 patients underwent an allogenic transplant, with a significant overall survival benefit compared to non-transplanted patients (p = 0.012). After a median observation of 8 months from CNS relapse, 23 patients (32%) were alive. In multivariate analysis, the time to CNS relapse was the strongest predictor of a lower 2-year post-relapse survival (p<0.001). In conclusion, in adult ALL the outcome after a CNS relapse remains very poor. Effective CNS prophylaxis remains the best approach and allogenic transplant should be pursued when possible.

Secondary infections worsen the outcome of COVID-19 in patients with hematological malignancies: A report from the ITA-HEMA-COV.

The impact of secondary infections (SI) on COVID-19 outcome in patients with hematological malignancies (HM) is scarcely documented. To evaluate incidence, clinical characteristics, and outcome of SI, we analyzed the microbiologically documented SI in a large multicenter cohort of adult HM patients with COVID-19. Among 1741 HM patients with COVID-19, 134 (7.7%) had 185 SI, with a 1-month cumulative incidence of 5%. Median time between COVID-19 diagnosis and SI was 16 days (IQR: 5-36). Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) and lymphoma/plasma cell neoplasms (PCN) were more frequent diagnoses in SI patients compared to patients without SI (AML: 14.9% vs. 7.1%; lymphoma/PCN 71.7% vs. 65.3%). Patients with SI were older (median age 70 vs. 66 years, p = 0.002), with more comorbidities (median Charlson Comorbidity Index 5 vs. 4, p < 0.001), higher frequency of critical COVID-19 (19.5% vs. 11.5%, p = 0.046), and more frequently not in complete remission (75% vs. 64.7% p = 0.024). Blood and bronchoalveolar lavage were the main sites of isolation for SI. Etiology of infections was bacterial in 80% (n = 148) of cases, mycotic in 9.7% (n = 18) and viral in 10.3% (n = 19); polymicrobial infections were observed in 24 patients (18%). Escherichia coli represented most of Gram-negative isolates (18.9%), while coagulase-negative Staphylococci were the most frequent among Gram-positive (14.2%). The 30-day mortality of patients with SI was higher when compared to patients without SI (69% vs. 15%, p < 0.001). The occurrence of SI worsened COVID-19 outcome in HM patients. Timely diagnosis and adequate management should be considered to improve their prognosis.

Clinical significance of chromatin-spliceosome acute myeloid leukemia: a report from the Northern Italy Leukemia Group (NILG) randomized trial 02/06.

Secondary acute myeloid leukemia (sAML) after myelodysplastic or myeloproliferative disorders is a high-risk category currently identified by clinical history or specific morphological and cytogenetic abnormalities. However, in the absence of these features, uncertainties remain to identify the secondary nature of some cases otherwise defined as de novo AML. To test whether a chromatin-spliceosome (CS) mutational signature might better inform the definition of the de novo AML group, we analyzed a prospective cohort of 413 newly diagnosed AML patients enrolled into a randomized clinical trial (NILG AML 02/06) and provided with accurate cytogenetic and molecular characterization. Among clinically defined de novo AML, 17.6% carried CS mutations (CS-AML) and showed clinical characteristics closer to sAML (older age, lower white blood cell counts and higher rate of multilineage dysplasia). Outcomes in this group were adverse, more similar to those of sAML as compared to de novo AML (overall survival, 30% in CS-AML and 17% in sAML vs 61% in de novo AML, P<0.0001; disease free survival, 26% in CS-AML and 22% in sAML vs 54% of de novo AML, P<0.001) and independently confirmed by multivariable analysis. Allogeneic transplant in first complete remission improved survival in both sAML and CS-AML patients. In conclusion, these findings highlight the clinical significance of identifying CS-AML for improved prognostic prediction and potential therapeutic implications. (NILG AML 02/06: ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT00495287).

Achieving Molecular Remission before Allogeneic Stem Cell Transplantation in Adult Patients with Philadelphia Chromosome-Positive Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia: Impact on Relapse and Long-Term Outcome.

Allogeneic stem cell transplantation (alloHSCT) in first complete remission (CR1) remains the consolidation therapy of choice in Philadelphia-positive (Ph+) acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL). The prognostic value of measurable levels of minimal residual disease (MRD) at time of conditioning is a matter of debate. We analyzed the predictive relevance of MRD levels before transplantation on the clinical outcome of Ph+ ALL patients treated with chemotherapy and imatinib in 2 consecutive prospective clinical trials. MRD evaluation before transplantation was available for 65 of the 73 patients who underwent an alloHSCT in CR1. A complete or major molecular response at time of conditioning was achieved in 24 patients (37%), whereas 41 (63%) remained carriers of any other positive MRD level in the bone marrow. MRD negativity at time of conditioning was associated with a significant benefit in terms of risk of relapse at 5 years, with a relapse incidence of 8% compared with 39% for patients with MRD positivity (P = .007). However, thanks to the post-transplantation use of tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs), disease-free survival was 58% versus 41% (P = .17) and overall survival was 58% versus 49% (P = .55) in MRD-negative compared with MRD-positive patients, respectively. The cumulative incidence of nonrelapse mortality was similar in the 2 groups. Achieving a complete molecular remission before transplantation reduces the risk of leukemia relapse even though TKIs may still rescue some patients relapsing after transplantation.

Randomized trial of radiation-free central nervous system prophylaxis comparing intrathecal triple therapy with liposomal cytarabine in acute lymphoblastic leukemia.

Developing optimal radiation-free central nervous system prophylaxis is a desirable goal in acute lymphoblastic leukemia, to avoid the long-term toxicity associated with cranial irradiation. In a randomized, phase II trial enrolling 145 adult patients, we compared intrathecal liposomal cytarabine (50 mg: 6/8 injections in B-/T-cell subsets, respectively) with intrathecal triple therapy (methotrexate/cytarabine/prednisone: 12 injections). Systemic therapy included methotrexate plus cytarabine or L-asparaginase courses, with methotrexate augmented to 2.5 and 5 g/m(2) in Philadelphia-negative B- and T-cell disease, respectively. The primary study objective was the comparative assessment of the risk/benefit ratio, combining the analysis of feasibility, toxicity and efficacy. In the liposomal cytarabine arm 17/71 patients (24%) developed grade 3-4 neurotoxicity compared to 2/74 (3%) in the triple therapy arm (P=0.0002), the median number of episodes of neurotoxicity of any grade was one per patient compared to zero, respectively (P=0.0001), and even though no permanent disabilities or deaths were registered, four patients (6%) discontinued intrathecal prophylaxis on account of these toxic side effects (P=0.06). Neurotoxicity worsened with liposomal cytarabine every 14 days (T-cell disease), and was improved by the adjunct of intrathecal dexamethasone. Two patients in the liposomal cytarabine arm suffered from a meningeal relapse (none with T-cell disease, only one after high-dose chemotherapy) compared to four in the triple therapy arm (1 with T-cell disease). While intrathecal liposomal cytarabine could contribute to improved, radiation-free central nervous system prophylaxis, the toxicity reported in this trial does not support its use at 50 mg and prompts the investigation of a lower dosage. (clinicaltrials.gov identifier: NCT-00795756).

High cure rates in Burkitt lymphoma and leukemia: a Northern Italy Leukemia Group study of the German short intensive rituximab-chemotherapy program.

We evaluate the long-term results of a prospective clinical study enrolling more than 100 adult patients with Burkitt lymphoma/leukemia. Depending on extent of disease, treatment consisted of six to eight rituximab infusions and four to six courses of intensive chemotherapy (attenuated in patients aged >55 years) with high-dose methotrexate, fractionated ifosfamide/cyclophosphamide, other drugs in rotation, and intrathecal chemoprophylaxis. One-hundred five patients were treated (median age 47 years, range 17-78 years); 48% had Burkitt leukemia, 25% were older than 60 years, 37% had an Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group performance score >1, and 14% were positive for human immunodeficiency virus. The complete response rate and 3-year overall and disease-free survival rates were 79%, 67% and 75%, respectively, ranging from 100% to 45% for survival (P=0.000) and from 100% to 60% for disease-free survival (P=0.01) in patients with low, intermediate and high adapted International Prognostic Index scores. In multivariate analysis, only age (≤ versus >60 years) and performance status (0-1 versus >1) retained prognostic significance, identifying three risk groups with overall and disease-free survival probabilities of 88% and 87.5%, 57% and 70.5%, 20% and 28.5% (P=0.0000 and P=0.0001), respectively. The relapse rate was only 7% in patients treated with an intercycle interval ≤ 25 days. This regimen achieved 100% curability in patients with low adapted International Prognostic Index scores (21% of total), and very close to 90% in patients aged ≤ 60 years with performance score 0-1 (48% of total). Rapid diagnosis of Burkitt lymphoma/leukemia with prompt referral of patients to prevent clinical deterioration, and careful supervision of treatment without chemotherapy delay can achieve outstanding therapeutic results. ClinicalTrials.gov ID, NCT01290120.

Pegaspargase-modified risk-oriented program for adult acute lymphoblastic leukemia: results of the GIMEMA LAL1913 trial.

Pediatric-inspired chemotherapy is the standard of care for younger adults with Philadelphia chromosome-negative acute lymphoblastic leukemia/lymphoma (Ph- ALL/LL). In LAL1913 trial, the Gruppo Italiano Malattie EMatologiche dell'Adulto added pegaspargase 2000 IU/m2 to courses 1, 2, 5, and 6 of an 8-block protocol for patients aged from 18 to 65 years, with dose reductions in patients aged >55 years. Responders were risk stratified for allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation (HCT) or maintenance per clinical characteristics and minimal residual disease (MRD). Of 203 study patients (median age, 39.8 years), 91% achieved a complete remission. The 3-year overall survival, event-free, and disease-free survival (DFS) rates were 66.7%, 57.7%, and 63.3%, respectively, fulfilling the primary study end point of a 2-year DFS >55%. Although based on the intention-to-treat, the DFS being 74% and 50% in the chemotherapy (n = 94) and HCT (n = 91) assignment cohorts, respectively, a time-dependent analysis proved the value of HCT in patients who were eligible (DFS HCT 70% vs no HCT 26%; P <.0001). In multivariate analysis, age and MRD were independent factors predicting DFS rates of 86% (age ≤ 40 and MRD-negative), 64%-65% (MRD-positive or age > 40) and 25% (age > 40 and MRD-positive); P < .0001. Grade ≥2 pegaspargase toxicity was mainly observed at course 1, contributing to induction death in 2 patients but was rare thereafter. This program improved outcomes of patients with Ph- ALL/LL aged up to 65 years in a multicenter national setting. This trial was registered at www.clinicaltrials.gov as #NCT02067143.

CD20 expression has no prognostic role in Philadelphia-negative B-precursor acute lymphoblastic leukemia: new insights from the molecular study of minimal residual disease.

The prognostic significance of CD20 expression in acute lymphoblastic leukemia has been investigated in children and adults but is still a subject of debate. The aim of our study was to correlate CD20 expression with clinical-biological characteristics and outcome in 172 Philadelphia chromosome negative patients prospectively treated in a multicenter trial introducing the molecular evaluation of minimal residual disease for therapeutic purposes. We considered 20% as the threshold for CD20 positivity. Complete remission rate, minimal residual disease negativity rate at weeks 10, 16 and 22, and disease-free and overall survival were similar among CD20-positive and -negative patients, even considering minimal residual disease results and related therapeutic choices. Our study failed to demonstrate any prognostic significance for CD20 expression in Philadelphia chromosome negative acute lymphoblastic leukemia. This conclusion is supported for the first time by a comparable minimal residual disease response rate among CD20-positive and -negative and positive patients.

Improved risk classification for risk-specific therapy based on the molecular study of minimal residual disease (MRD) in adult acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL).

Clinical risk classification is inaccurate in predicting relapse in adult patients with acute lymphoblastic leukemia, sometimes resulting in patients receiving inappropriate chemotherapy or stem cell transplantation (SCT). We studied minimal residual disease (MRD) as a predictive factor for recurrence and as a decisional tool for postconsolidation maintenance (in MRD(neg)) or SCT (in MRD(pos)). MRD was tested at weeks 10, 16, and 22 using real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction with 1 or more sensitive probes. Only patients with t(9;22) or t(4;11) were immediately eligible for allogeneic SCT. Of 280 registered patients (236 in remission), 34 underwent an early SCT, 60 suffered from relapse or severe toxicity, and 142 were evaluable for MRD at the end of consolidation. Of these, 58 were MRD(neg), 54 MRD(pos), and 30 were not assessable. Five-year overall survival/disease-free survival rates were 0.75/0.72 in the MRD(neg) group compared with 0.33/0.14 in MRD(pos) (P = .001), regardless of the clinical risk class. MRD was the most significant risk factor for relapse (hazard ratio, 5.22). MRD results at weeks 16 to 22 correlated strongly with the earlier time point (P = .001) using a level of 10(-4) or higher to define persistent disease. MRD analysis during early postremission therapy improves risk definitions and bolsters risk-oriented strategies. ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT00358072.

Early peripheral clearance of leukemia-associated immunophenotypes in AML: centralized analysis of a randomized trial.

Although genetics is a relevant risk factor in acute myeloid leukemia (AML), it can be minimally informative and/or not readily available for the early identification of patients at risk for treatment failure. In a randomized trial comparing standard vs high-dose induction (ClinicalTrials.gov #NCT00495287), we studied early peripheral blast cell clearance (PBC) as a rapid predictive assay of chemotherapy response to determine whether it correlates with the achievement of complete remission (CR), as well as postremission outcome, according to induction intensity. Individual leukemia-associated immunophenotypes (LAIPs) identified pretherapy by flow cytometry were validated and quantified centrally after 3 days of treatment, expressing PBC on a logarithmic scale as the ratio of absolute LAIP+ cells on day 1 and day 4. Of 178 patients, 151 (84.8%) were evaluable. Patients in CR exhibited significantly higher median PBC (2.3 log) compared with chemoresistant patients (1.0 log; P < .0001). PBC < 1.0 predicted the worst outcome (CR, 28%). With 1.5 log established as the most accurate cutoff predicting CR, 87.5% of patients with PBC >1.5 (PBChigh, n = 96) and 43.6% of patients with PBC ≤1.5 (PBClow, n = 55) achieved CR after single-course induction (P < .0001). CR and PBChigh rates were increased in patients randomized to the high-dose induction arm (P = .04) and correlated strongly with genetic/cytogenetic risk. In multivariate analysis, PBC retained significant predictive power for CR, relapse risk, and survival. Thus, PBC analysis can provide a very early prediction of outcome, correlates with treatment intensity and disease subset, and may support studies of customized AML therapy.

Updated risk-oriented strategy for acute lymphoblastic leukemia in adult patients 18-65 years: NILG ALL 10/07.

An updated strategy combining pediatric-based chemotherapy with risk-oriented allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation (HCT) was evaluated in Philadelphia chromosome-negative acute lymphoblastic leukemia (Ph- ALL) and compared with a published control series. Following induction-consolidation chemotherapy, responsive patients were assigned to receive maintenance chemotherapy or undergo early HCT according to the risk stratification criteria and minimal residual disease (MRD) status. Of the 203 study patients (median age 41 years, range 17-67), 140/161 with Ph- ALL achieved complete remission (86.9%; 91.6% ≤55 years, P = 0.0002), with complete MRD clearing in 68/109; 55 patients were assigned to maintenance chemotherapy, and 85 to HCT due to very high-risk characteristics (hyperleukocytosis, adverse genetics, early/mature T-precursor ALL, and MRD persistence). The 5-year relapse incidence was 36%, and the treatment-related mortality rate was 18%. Median overall and relapse-free survival were 7.4 and 6.2 years, with rates of 54 and 53% at 5 years, respectively, which were significantly better than those obtained with the historical protocol (P = 0.001 and P = 0.005, respectively), without significant differences between maintenance and HCT cohorts. In prognostic analysis, MRD negativity and age ≤55 years were the most favorable independent prognostic factors. A reduction in treatment toxicity and further improvements in the risk definitions and risk-oriented design are the focuses of this ongoing research.

CPX-351 treatment in secondary acute myeloblastic leukemia is effective and improves the feasibility of allogeneic stem cell transplantation: results of the Italian compassionate use program.

Secondary acute myeloid leukemia (sAML) poorly responds to conventional treatments and allogeneic stem cell transplantation (HSCT). We evaluated toxicity and efficacy of CPX-351 in 71 elderly patients (median age 66 years) with sAML enrolled in the Italian Named (Compassionate) Use Program. Sixty days treatment-related mortality was 7% (5/71). The response rate at the end of treatment was: CR/CRi in 50/71 patients (70.4%), PR in 6/71 (8.5%), and NR in 10/71 (19.7%). After a median follow-up of 11 months relapse was observed in 10/50 patients (20%) and 12 months cumulative incidence of relapse (CIR) was 23.6%. Median duration of response was not reached. In competing risk analysis, CIR was reduced when HSCT was performed in first CR (12 months CIR of 5% and 37.4%, respectively, for patients receiving (=20) or not (=30) HSCT, p = 0.012). Twelve-months OS was 68.6% (median not reached). In landmark analysis, HSCT in CR1 was the only significant predictor of longer survival (12 months OS of 100 and 70.5%, for patients undergoing or not HSCT in CR1, respectively, p = 0.011). In conclusion, we extend to a real-life setting, the notion that CPX is an effective regimen for high risk AML patients and may improve the results of HSCT.

Clinical characteristics and risk factors associated with COVID-19 severity in patients with haematological malignancies in Italy: a retrospective, multicentre, cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Several small studies on patients with COVID-19 and haematological malignancies are available showing a high mortality in this population. The Italian Hematology Alliance on COVID-19 aimed to collect data from adult patients with haematological malignancies who required hospitalisation for COVID-19. METHODS: This multicentre, retrospective, cohort study included adult patients (aged ≥18 years) with diagnosis of a WHO-defined haematological malignancy admitted to 66 Italian hospitals between Feb 25 and May 18, 2020, with laboratory-confirmed and symptomatic COVID-19. Data cutoff for this analysis was June 22, 2020. The primary outcome was mortality and evaluation of potential predictive parameters of mortality. We calculated standardised mortality ratios between observed death in the study cohort and expected death by applying stratum-specific mortality rates of the Italian population with COVID-19 and an Italian cohort of 31 993 patients with haematological malignancies without COVID-19 (data up to March 1, 2019). Multivariable Cox proportional hazards model was used to identify factors associated with overall survival. This study is registered with ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT04352556, and the prospective part of the study is ongoing. FINDINGS: We enrolled 536 patients with a median follow-up of 20 days (IQR 10-34) at data cutoff, 85 (16%) of whom were managed as outpatients. 440 (98%) of 451 hospitalised patients completed their hospital course (were either discharged alive or died). 198 (37%) of 536 patients died. When compared with the general Italian population with COVID-19, the standardised mortality ratio was 2·04 (95% CI 1·77-2·34) in our whole study cohort and 3·72 (2·86-4·64) in individuals younger than 70 years. When compared with the non-COVID-19 cohort with haematological malignancies, the standardised mortality ratio was 41·3 (38·1-44·9). Older age (hazard ratio 1·03, 95% CI 1·01-1·05); progressive disease status (2·10, 1·41-3·12); diagnosis of acute myeloid leukaemia (3·49, 1·56-7·81), indolent non-Hodgin lymphoma (2·19, 1·07-4·48), aggressive non-Hodgkin lymphoma (2·56, 1·34-4·89), or plasma cell neoplasms (2·48, 1·31-4·69), and severe or critical COVID-19 (4·08, 2·73-6·09) were associated with worse overall survival. INTERPRETATION: This study adds to the evidence that patients with haematological malignancies have worse outcomes than both the general population with COVID-19 and patients with haematological malignancies without COVID-19. The high mortality among patients with haematological malignancies hospitalised with COVID-19 highlights the need for aggressive infection prevention strategies, at least until effective vaccination or treatment strategies are available. FUNDING: Associazione italiana contro le leucemie, linfomi e mieloma-Varese Onlus.

Phase II trial with sequential clofarabine and cyclophosphamide for refractory and relapsed philadelphia-negative adult acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Results of the GIMEMA LAL 1610 protocol.

Clofarabine (CLO) and cyclophosphamide (CY) combinations were tested in late stage refractory/relapsed (R/R) acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) with disappointing results and high-grade toxicity. We designed a sequential 5-day combination of CLO 40 mg/m2/d plus CY 400 mg/m2/d as first salvage for Philadelphia-negative ALL patients refractory or relapsed until 24 months from complete remission (CR). Primary endpoint was an overall response rate (ORR) ≥ 40%. Among 26 study patients (median age 40.5 years) ORR was 57.6% (CR with complete [n = 8] or incomplete [n = 7] hematologic recovery). Despite severe myelotoxicity, no dose-limiting toxicity suggested de-intensification of CLO schedule. With a median follow-up of 17.0 months, median and 1-year overall and disease-free survival were 6.5 months and 28.6%, and 3.7 months and 28.1%, respectively. This association was tolerable and more effective in patients younger than 40 years with B-precursor ALL, longer first CR, not previously transplanted and achieving CR with full hematological recovery.

Randomized trial comparing standard vs sequential high-dose chemotherapy for inducing early CR in adult AML.

Here we evaluated whether sequential high-dose chemotherapy (sHD) increased the early complete remission (CR) rate in acute myelogenous leukemia (AML) compared with standard-intensity idarubicin-cytarabine-etoposide (ICE) chemotherapy. This study enrolled 574 patients (age, 16-73 years; median, 52 years) who were randomly assigned to ICE (n = 286 evaluable) or sHD (2 weekly 3-day blocks with cytarabine 2 g/m2 twice a day for 2 days plus idarubicin; n = 286 evaluable). Responsive patients were risk-stratified for a second randomization. Standard-risk patients received autograft or repetitive blood stem cell-supported high-dose courses. High-risk patients (and standard-risk patients not mobilizing stem cells) underwent allotransplantation. CR rates after 2 induction courses were comparable between ICE (80.8%) and sHD (83.6%; P = .38). sHD yielded a higher single-induction CR rate (69.2% vs 81.5%; P = .0007) with lower resistance risk (P < .0001), comparable mortality (P = .39), and improved 5-year overall survival (39% vs 49%; P = .045) and relapse-free survival (36% vs 48%; P = .028), despite greater hematotoxicity delaying or reducing consolidation blocks. sHD improved the early CR rate in high-risk AML (odds ratio, 0.48; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.31-0.74; P = .0008) and in patients aged 60 years and less with de novo AML (odds ratio, 0.46; 95% CI, 0.27-0.78; P = .003), and also improved overall/relapse-free survival in the latter group (hazard ratio, 0.70; 95% CI, 0.52-0.94; P = .01), in standard-risk AML, and postallograft (hazard ratio, 0.61; 95% CI, 0.39-0.96; P = .03). sHD was feasible, effectively achieved rapid CR, and improved outcomes in AML subsets. This study is registered at www.clinicaltrials.gov as #NCT00495287.

Immunotherapy approaches to treat adult acute lymphoblastic leukemia.

Recent developments in immunotherapy are improving treatment results of B-precursor acute lymphoblastic leukemia. This advancement is promoted by new monoclonal antibodies such as inotuzumab ozogamicin, ofatumumab and blinatumomab, by rituximab, and by genetically engineered chimeric antigen receptor-modified T-cells. These treatments, variously targeting CD22, CD20 and CD19 antigens, yield unprecedented high rates of hematologic and molecular remissions even when used in monotherapy and in chemo-resistant or post-transplantation relapsed patients. Beside the encouraging results in relapsed/refractory disease, these agents may open a totally new era in the frontline management of this illness, redefining treatment standards and options for different risk subsets and placing the achievement of a molecular remission at the forefront of treatment objectives. The ever increasing importance of modern immunotherapy in improving treatment design and therapeutic outcome is reviewed.

Modern immunotherapy of adult B-lineage acute lymphoblastic leukemia with monoclonal antibodies and chimeric antigen receptor modified T cells.

The introduction of newer cytotoxic monoclonal antibodies and chimeric antigen receptor modified T cells is opening a new age in the management of B-lineage adult acute lymphoblastic leukemia. This therapeutic change must be very positively acknowledged because of the limits of intensive chemotherapy programs and allogeneic stem cell transplantation. In fact, with these traditional therapeutic tools the cure can be achieved in only 40-50% of the patients. The failure rates are particularly high in the elderly, in patients with post-induction persistence of minimal residual disease and especially in refractory/relapsed disease. The place of the novel immunotherapeutics in improving the outcome of adult patients with B-lineage acute lymphoblastic leukemia is reviewed.

Current and future management of Ph/BCR-ABL positive ALL.

Following the introduction of targeted therapy with tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKI) at the beginning of the past decade, the outcome of patients with Philadelphia-chromosome positive acute lymphoblastic leukemia (Ph+ ALL) has dramatically improved. Presently, the use of refined programs with first/second generation TKI's and chemotherapy together with allogeneic stem cell transplantation allow up to 50% of all patients to be cured. Further progress is expected with the new TKI ponatinib, overcoming resistance caused by T315I point mutation, other targeted therapies, autologous transplantation in molecularly negative patients, therapeutic monoclonal antibodies like inotuzumab ozogamicin and blinatumomab, and chimeric antigen receptor-modified T cells. Ph+ ALL could become curable in the near future even without allogeneic stem cell transplantation, minimizing the risk of therapy-related death and improving greatly the quality of patients' life.