Endoparasitic helminths in Baltic salmon Salmo salar: ecological implications.

Parasites in fish are ecological indicators, as they reflect the host's migration routes, feeding behavior and immune status. We performed a parasitological investigation of sea-running Baltic salmon to study the use of parasites as indicators for this fish stock. The host-a strain of Atlantic salmon Salmo salar-has been isolated for several millennia in the semi-enclosed brackish Baltic Sea, with limited migration to and from the North Sea. Twenty-four salmon (total body weight: 4.2-14.2 kg; total body length: 80-105 cm) were caught by spoon bait in the southern Baltic Sea during feeding migrations, necropsied shortly afterwards and internal organs subjected to parasitological investigation focusing on endoparasitic helminths. The pyloric region was heavily parasitized by the cestode Eubothrium crassum (100% prevalence; intensity: 97-273 parasites per infected fish), reflecting a diet of smaller pelagic fishes. The stomach contained the hemiurid digeneans Brachyphallus crenatus (95.8% prevalence; intensity: 8-151) and Hemiurus luehei (58.3% prevalence; intensity: 2-13), indicating a diet of clupeids. Schistocephalus solidus (25% prevalence; intensity: 1-2), liberated from ingested sticklebacks, the acanthocephalan Echinorhynchus truttae (54% prevalence; intensity: 1-13) and the adult nematode Hysterothylacium aduncum (29% prevalence; intensity: 1-13) were found in the intestine. The liver was parasitized by third-stage nematode larvae of Contracaecum osculatum (45.8% prevalence; intensity: 1-4), but these were growth-stunted and encapsulated. The parasite fauna differs markedly from salmon in North Atlantic waters, and the lack of purely marine parasite species indicates that the Baltic salmon has remained in the Baltic Sea during its life history.

Contracaecum osculatum (sensu lato) infection of Gadus morhua in the Baltic Sea: inter- and intraspecific interactions.

The subpopulation of Atlantic cod, Gadus morhua, in the eastern part of the Baltic Sea has experienced a significant increase in infections with anisakid nematode larvae of the species Contracaecum osculatum sensu lato (s.l.) since the year 2000. The life cycle of the parasite includes seals and especially the grey seal, Halichoerus grypus, as final hosts, carrying the adult nematodes in the stomach, crustaceans (copepods, amphipods) as first intermediate hosts and various fish species (clupeids, sandeel) including cod as second intermediate/paratenic hosts. Cod with a body length below 28 cm are generally non-infected but experience increasing infection levels when they switch to a piscine diet (infected intermediate/paratenic hosts). We present an overall frequency distribution analysis of worms in 166 cod (body length 30-49 cm) collected in the spawning area over the last 5 years. It shows a fit to the negative binomial distribution, a prevalence of infection of 89.8%, a mean intensity of 29.3 parasites per fish (range 1-377) and a variance/mean ratio of 59.2 (≫1), indicating overdispersion. We present measurements of the adult Contracaecum osculatum (s.l.) specimens in the seal stomach and show that the parasites reach a maximum length of 6.6 cm (females) and 5.8 cm (males). L3s in sprat have a total length from 1to 11 mm whereas the larvae in cod liver are 3-27 mm. A decreasing mean worm length associated with high worm densities in cod (number of nematodes per liver) was recorded. Possible explanations might include timing of feeding on infected intermediate/paratenic hosts, intraspecific competition (crowding) between larvae in cod and host responses (indicated by a significant antibody production in cod against C. osculatum (s.l.) antigens). A significant negative correlation between infection intensity and muscle mass of cod was found, suggesting parasite-induced down-regulation of growth factors in cod.

Differential immune gene response in gills, skin, and spleen of rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss infected by Ichthyophthirius multifiliis.

Infection of rainbow trout with the parasitic ciliate Ichthyopthirius multifiliis induces differential responses in gills, skin and spleen. A controlled experimental infection was performed and expression of immune-relevant genes in skin, gills, and spleen were recorded by qPCR at day 1 and 8 after parasite exposure. Infection induced a marked reaction involving regulation of innate and adaptive immune genes in rainbow trout at day 8 post-infection. The expression level of a total of 22 out of 24 investigated genes was significantly higher in gills compared to skin reflecting the more sensitive and delicate structure of gills. Especially pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-6, IL-17 C1, regulatory cytokines IL-4/13A, IL-10, TGFß, complement factor C5, chemokines CK10, CK12, acute phase proteins (precerebellin, hepcidin) and immunoglobulins (IgM, IgT) displayed differential expression levels. The spleen, a central immune organ with no trace of the parasite, showed elevated expression of IgM, IgT, complement factor C5 and chemokine CK10 (compared to skin and gills directly exposed to the parasite), indicating an interaction between the infected surface sites and central immune organs. This communication could be mediated by chemokines CK10 and CK12 and cytokine IL-4/13A and may at least partly explain the establishment of a systemic response in rainbow trout against the parasite.