Novel application of one-step pooled molecular testing and maximum likelihood approaches to estimate the prevalence of malaria parasitaemia among rapid diagnostic test negative samples in western Kenya.

BACKGROUND: Detection of malaria parasitaemia in samples that are negative by rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs) requires resource-intensive molecular tools. While pooled testing using a two-step strategy provides a cost-saving alternative to the gold standard of individual sample testing, statistical adjustments are needed to improve accuracy of prevalence estimates for a single step pooled testing strategy. METHODS: A random sample of 4670 malaria RDT negative dried blood spot samples were selected from a mass testing and treatment trial in Asembo, Gem, and Karemo, western Kenya. Samples were tested for malaria individually and in pools of five, 934 pools, by one-step quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR). Maximum likelihood approaches were used to estimate subpatent parasitaemia (RDT-negative, qPCR-positive) prevalence by pooling, assuming poolwise sensitivity and specificity was either 100% (strategy A) or imperfect (strategy B). To improve and illustrate the practicality of this estimation approach, a validation study was constructed from pools allocated at random into main (734 pools) and validation (200 pools) subsets. Prevalence was estimated using strategies A and B and an inverse-variance weighted estimator and estimates were weighted to account for differential sampling rates by area. RESULTS: The prevalence of subpatent parasitaemia was 14.5% (95% CI 13.6-15.3%) by individual qPCR, 9.5% (95% CI (8.5-10.5%) by strategy A, and 13.9% (95% CI 12.6-15.2%) by strategy B. In the validation study, the prevalence by individual qPCR was 13.5% (95% CI 12.4-14.7%) in the main subset, 8.9% (95% CI 7.9-9.9%) by strategy A, 11.4% (95% CI 9.9-12.9%) by strategy B, and 12.8% (95% CI 11.2-14.3%) using inverse-variance weighted estimator from poolwise validation. Pooling, including a 20% validation subset, reduced costs by 52% compared to individual testing. CONCLUSIONS: Compared to individual testing, a one-step pooled testing strategy with an internal validation subset can provide accurate prevalence estimates of PCR-positivity among RDT-negatives at a lower cost.

Temporal trends in molecular markers of drug resistance in Plasmodium falciparum in human blood and profiles of corresponding resistant markers in mosquito oocysts in Asembo, western Kenya.

BACKGROUND: Over the last two decades, the scale-up of vector control and changes in the first-line anti-malarial, from chloroquine (CQ) to sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine (SP) and then to artemether-lumefantrine (AL), have resulted in significant decreases in malaria burden in western Kenya. This study evaluated the long-term effects of control interventions on molecular markers of Plasmodium falciparum drug resistance using parasites obtained from humans and mosquitoes at discrete time points. METHODS: Dried blood spot samples collected in 2012 and 2017 community surveys in Asembo, Kenya were genotyped by Sanger sequencing for markers associated with resistance to SP (Pfdhfr, Pfdhps), CQ, AQ, lumefantrine (Pfcrt, Pfmdr1) and artemisinin (Pfk13). Temporal trends in the prevalence of these markers, including data from 2012 to 2017 as well as published data from 1996, 2001, 2007 from same area, were analysed. The same markers from mosquito oocysts collected in 2012 were compared with results from human blood samples. RESULTS: The prevalence of SP dhfr/dhps quintuple mutant haplotype C50I51R59N108I164/S436G437E540A581A613 increased from 19.7% in 1996 to 86.0% in 2012, while an increase in the sextuple mutant haplotype C50I51R59N108I164/H436G437E540A581A613 containing Pfdhps-436H was found from 10.5% in 2012 to 34.6% in 2017. Resistant Pfcrt-76 T declined from 94.6% in 2007 to 18.3% in 2012 and 0.9% in 2017. Mutant Pfmdr1-86Y decreased across years from 74.8% in 1996 to zero in 2017, mutant Pfmdr1-184F and wild Pfmdr1-D1246 increased from 17.9% to 58.9% in 2007 to 55.9% and 90.1% in 2017, respectively. Pfmdr1 haplotype N86F184S1034N1042D1246 increased from 11.0% in 2007 to 49.6% in 2017. No resistant mutations in Pfk13 were found. Prevalence of Pfdhps-436H was lower while prevalence of Pfcrt-76 T was higher in mosquitoes than in human blood samples. CONCLUSION: This study showed an increased prevalence of dhfr/dhps resistant markers over 20 years with the emergence of Pfdhps-436H mutant a decade ago in Asembo. The reversal of Pfcrt from CQ-resistant to CQ-sensitive genotype occurred following 19 years of CQ withdrawal. No Pfk13 markers associated with artemisinin resistance were detected, but the increased haplotype of Pfmdr1 N86F184S1034N1042D1246 was observed. The differences in prevalence of Pfdhps-436H and Pfcrt-76 T SNPs between two hosts and the role of mosquitoes in the transmission of drug resistant parasites require further investigation.

Proceeding report of the Fourth Symposium on Hidradenitis Suppurativa Advances 2019.

The Fourth Annual Symposium on Hidradenitis Suppurativa (SHSA) took place on November 1-3, 2019, at the Westin Book Cadillac Hotel in Detroit, Michigan. This symposium was a joint meeting of the US Hidradenitis Suppurativa Foundation and the Canadian Hidradenitis Suppurativa Foundation. This cross-disciplinary meeting with experts from around the world was an opportunity to discuss the most recent advances in the study of hidradenitis suppurativa (HS) pathogenesis, clinical trials, classification, scoring systems, complementary/alternative medical treatments, diet, pain management, surgical and laser treatment, and ultrasonographic assessment. A special preconference workshop was held on the use of neodymium-doped yttrium-aluminum-garnet laser hair reduction, sinus tract deroofing, and carbon dioxide laser excision with ultrasonographic mapping and tumescent anesthesia for the treatment of HS. The focused workshops on establishing an HS clinic, setting up an HS support group, the Hidradenitis Suppurativa Prospective Observational Registry and Biospecimen Repository, and wound care were held during the meeting. A special program called HS Ambassadors was established for patients who may have questions about the conference presentations, and in addition, a meet and greet for patients and HS Ambassadors was arranged. To facilitate networking between those early in their careers and clinical and research experts, a mentoring reception was held.

Mass drug administration for malaria.

BACKGROUND: Studies evaluating mass drug administration (MDA) in malarious areas have shown reductions in malaria immediately following the intervention. However, these effects vary by endemicity and are not sustained. Since the 2013 version of this Cochrane Review on this topic, additional studies have been published. OBJECTIVES: Primary objectives To assess the sustained effect of MDA with antimalarial drugs on: - the reduction in malaria transmission in moderate- to high-transmission settings; - the interruption of transmission in very low- to low-transmission settings. Secondary objective To summarize the risk of drug-associated adverse effects following MDA. SEARCH METHODS: We searched several trial registries, citation databases, conference proceedings, and reference lists for relevant articles up to 11 February 2021. We also communicated with researchers to identify additional published and unpublished studies. SELECTION CRITERIA: Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and non-randomized studies comparing MDA to no MDA with balanced co-interventions across study arms and at least two geographically distinct sites per study arm. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: Two review authors independently assessed trials for eligibility and extracted data. We calculated relative risk (RR) and rate ratios with corresponding 95% confidence intervals (CIs) to compare prevalence and incidence, respectively, in MDA compared to no-MDA groups. We stratified analyses by malaria transmission and by malaria species. For cluster-randomized controlled trials (cRCTs), we adjusted standard errors using the intracluster correlation coefficient. We assessed the certainty of the evidence using the GRADE approach. For non-randomized controlled before-and-after (CBA) studies, we summarized the data using difference-in-differences (DiD) analyses. MAIN RESULTS: Thirteen studies met our criteria for inclusion. Ten were cRCTs and three were CBAs. Cluster-randomized controlled trials Moderate- to high-endemicity areas (prevalence ≥ 10%) We included data from two studies conducted in The Gambia and Zambia.  At one to three months after MDA, the Plasmodium falciparum (hereafter, P falciparum) parasitaemia prevalence estimates may be higher compared to control but the CIs included no effect (RR 1.76, 95% CI 0.58 to 5.36; Zambia study; low-certainty evidence); parasitaemia incidence was probably lower (RR 0.61, 95% CI 0.40 to 0.92; The Gambia study; moderate-certainty evidence); and confirmed malaria illness incidence may be substantially lower,  but the CIs included no effect (rate ratio 0.41, 95% CI 0.04 to 4.42; Zambia study; low-certainty evidence).  At four to six months after MDA, MDA showed little or no effect on P falciparum parasitaemia prevalence (RR 1.18, 95% CI 0.89 to 1.56; The Gambia study; moderate-certainty evidence) and, no persisting effect was demonstrated with parasitaemia incidence (rate ratio 0.91, 95% CI 0.55 to 1.50; The Gambia study). Very low- to low-endemicity areas (prevalence < 10%) Seven studies from Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar (two studies), Vietnam, Zambia, and Zanzibar evaluated the effects of multiple rounds of MDA on P falciparum. Immediately following MDA (less than one month after MDA), parasitaemia prevalence was reduced (RR 0.12, 95% CI 0.03 to 0.52; one study; low-certainty evidence). At one to three months after MDA, there was a reduction in both parasitaemia incidence (rate ratio 0.37, 95% CI 0.21 to 0.55; 1 study; moderate-certainty evidence) and prevalence (RR 0.25, 95% CI 0.15 to 0.41; 7 studies; low-certainty evidence). For confirmed malaria incidence, absolute rates were low, and it is uncertain whether MDA had an effect on this outcome (rate ratio 0.58, 95% CI 0.12 to 2.73; 2 studies; very low-certainty evidence).  For P falciparum prevalence, the relative differences declined over time, from RR 0.63 (95% CI 0.36 to 1.12; 4 studies) at four to six months after MDA, to RR 0.86 (95% CI 0.55 to 1.36; 5 studies) at 7 to 12 months after MDA. Longer-term prevalence estimates showed overall low absolute risks, and relative effect estimates of the effect of MDA on prevalence varied from RR 0.82 (95% CI 0.20 to 3.34) at 13 to 18 months after MDA, to RR 1.25 (95% CI 0.25 to 6.31) at 31 to 36 months after MDA in one study. Five studies from Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar (2 studies), and Vietnam evaluated the effect of MDA on Plasmodium vivax (hereafter, P vivax). One month following MDA, P vivax prevalence was lower (RR 0.18, 95% CI 0.08 to 0.40; 1 study; low-certainty evidence). At one to three months after MDA, there was a reduction in P vivax prevalence (RR 0.15, 95% CI 0.10 to 0.24; 5 studies; low-certainty evidence). The immediate reduction on P vivax prevalence was not sustained over time, from RR 0.78 (95% CI 0.63 to 0.95; 4 studies) at four to six months after MDA, to RR 1.12 (95% CI 0.94 to 1.32; 5 studies) at 7 to 12 months after MDA. One of the studies in Myanmar provided estimates of longer-term effects, where overall absolute risks were low, ranging from RR 0.81 (95% CI 0.44 to 1.48) at 13 to 18 months after MDA, to RR 1.20 (95% CI 0.44 to 3.29) at 31 to 36 months after MDA. Non-randomized studies Three CBA studies were conducted in moderate- to high-transmission areas in Burkina Faso, Kenya, and Nigeria. There was a reduction in P falciparum parasitaemia prevalence in MDA groups compared to control groups during MDA (DiD range: -15.8 to -61.4 percentage points), but the effect varied at one to three months after MDA (DiD range: 14.9 to -41.1 percentage points).  AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS: In moderate- to high-transmission settings, no studies reported important effects on P falciparum parasitaemia prevalence within six months after MDA. In very low- to low-transmission settings, parasitaemia prevalence and incidence were reduced initially for up to three months for both P falciparum and P vivax; longer-term data did not demonstrate an effect after four months, but absolute risks in both intervention and control groups were low. No studies provided evidence of interruption of malaria transmission.

Medication safety in a pandemic: A multicentre point prevalence study of QTc monitoring of hydroxychloroquine for COVID-19.

WHAT IS KNOWN AND OBJECTIVE: A pandemic can strain all aspects of the healthcare system, including the ability to monitor the safety of medication use. Reviewing the adequacy of medication safety practices during the COVID-19 pandemic is critical to informing responses to future pandemics. The purpose of this study was to evaluate medication safety practices at a height of both COVID-19 cases and hydroxychloroquine use. METHODS: This was a multicentre observational point prevalence study. Adult inpatients receiving hydroxychloroquine for COVID-19 between March 22 and 28, 2020 were included. The primary outcome was the percentage of patients receiving appropriate QTc monitoring. Secondary outcomes included QTc prolongation, early discontinuation of hydroxychloroquine and ventricular arrhythmias. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: A total of 59% (167/284) of patients treated with hydroxychloroquine received appropriate QTc monitoring. QTc prolongation occurred in 25%. Hydroxychloroquine was prematurely discontinued in 1.4% of patients, all due to QTc prolongation. Ventricular arrhythmia occurred in 1.1%. WHAT IS NEW AND CONCLUSION: Medication safety practices were suboptimal with regard to hydroxychloroquine monitoring at the height of the COVID-19 pandemic. Preparation for future pandemics should devote considerable attention to medication safety.

Laser Resurfacing Monotherapy for the Treatment of Actinic Keratosis.

Treating actinic keratosis (AK) and photodamaged skin is critical to reduce the risk of progression to skin cancer. Laser resurfacing for AK treatment is available as either lesion-directed or field therapy. Laser resurfacing removes the superficial epidermis and dermis containing actinic damage, promoting re-epithelialization of healthy skin. Although laser resurfacing has been explored as a modality for AK treatment in the literature, studies summarizing its efficacy in the treatment of AK are lacking. This review summarizes existing research on laser resurfacing as a monotherapy for AK treatment, highlighting the various laser resurfacing modalities available for AK treatment as well as their complications and efficacy in comparison to other therapies. Despite longer healing time, fully ablative laser resurfacing, including carbon dioxide and erbium-doped yttrium aluminum garnet were found to be more effective for AK treatment than fractional ablative techniques. Although some studies suggest laser resurfacing monotherapy as less efficacious than photodynamic therapy, and equally effective to 5-fluorouracil and 30% trichloroacetic acid, clinical trials of larger sample size are required to establish stronger evidence-based conclusions. Moreover, laser resurfacing used as lesion-directed therapy, as opposed to the usual field-therapy, requires further investigation.

Race-Specific Prevalence of Hidradenitis Suppurativa.

Hidradenitis suppurativa (HS) is a chronic, inflammatory disease affecting approximately 1% of the global population. While age- and sex-specific prevalence of HS is well documented in literature, few studies have explored trends in racial predilections for HS. The objective of this study is to investigate the race-specific prevalence of HS. MEDLINE and EMBASE searches were conducted in the OVID database. Keywords included variations of "race," "ethnicity," "country," "prevalence," and "Hidradenitis suppurativa." Studies were included if they were written in English or French, conducted on human participants, and had data on HS and race-specific prevalence. Meta-analyses, systematic and literature reviews, and irrelevant articles were excluded. Thirty-nine out of 184 articles met the inclusion criteria after abstract and full-text screening. Population distribution was scaled according to country-specific demographics reports. These demographic reports were extracted from each country's national statistics report. The average HS prevalence rates were highest in African American populations (1.3%), lowest in Hispanics/Latinos (0.07%), and intermediate amongst Caucasian populations (0.75%). Total prevalence in all other ethnic groups (0.17%) was minor in comparison to African American and Caucasian populations. Since the highest rates of HS were found among African American population, literature has highlighted the possibility of a genetic etiology in HS development. However, further literature examining race-specific prevalence of HS internationally is required to accurately assess the frequency and underlying etiology of HS among varying racial populations.

Rosacea: An Update in Diagnosis, Classification and Management.

The diagnosis and classification of rosacea has been modified to reflect presenting features. On exclusion of differentials, the diagnosis of rosacea is based on the presence of either (1) phymatous changes, or (2) centrofacial persistent erythema. In their absence, diagnosis can be established by presence of any two of: flushing/transient erythema, papules and pustules, telangiectases, or ocular manifestations. Management of rosacea depends on presenting feature(s), their severity, and impact. General management includes gentle skin care, sun protection, and trigger avoidance. Evidence-based treatment recommendations include topical brimonidine and oxymetazoline for persistent erythema; topical azelaic acid, ivermectin, metronidazole, minocycline and oral doxycycline, tetracycline and isotretinoin for papules and pustules; vascular lasers and light devices for telangiectases; and omega-3 fatty acids and cyclosporine ophthalmic emulsion for ocular rosacea. While surgical or laser therapy can be considered for clinically noninflamed phyma, there are no trials on their utility. Combination therapies include topical brimonidine with topical ivermectin, or topical metronidazole with oral doxycycline. Topical metronidazole, topical ivermectin, and topical azelaic acid are appropriate for maintenance therapy. In conclusion, the updated phenotype approach, based on presenting clinical features, is the foundation for current diagnosis, classification, and treatment of rosacea.

Hair Removal Practices: A Literature Review.

Hair removal practices have evolved from adhering to social, cultural, and religious traditions to meeting aesthetic standards. Hair removal methods can be divided into two categories: 1) depilation, which involves removing the hair shaft and includes shaving and chemical depilatories, and 2) epilation, which involves removing the hair shaft, follicle, and bulb, and includes plucking, threading, waxing, sugaring, lasers, intense pulsed light system, electrolysis, and photodynamic therapy. Furthermore, an eflornithine hydrochloride 13.9% cream (Vaniqa®, neither an epilatory or depilatory technique), has been US FDA- and Health Canada-approved to slow the rate of facial hair growth and to be used in combination with other hair removal methods. All methods are temporary except for electrolysis, and each technique has advantages and disadvantages in terms of efficacy and adverse events. Importantly, most studies examining the efficacy of hair removal techniques are limited to darker hair and fairer skin, and further research is required especially for those with light-colored hair.

The effectiveness of older insecticide-treated bed nets (ITNs) to prevent malaria infection in an area of moderate pyrethroid resistance: results from a cohort study in Malawi.

BACKGROUND: A previous cohort study in Malawi showed that users of new insecticide-treated bed nets (ITNs) were significantly protected against malaria compared to non-users, despite moderate levels of pyrethroid resistance among the primary mosquito vectors. The present study investigated whether ITNs that were 1-2 years old continued to protect users in the same area with moderate pyrethroid resistance. METHODS: One year following a baseline cross-sectional malaria parasitaemia prevalence survey and universal distribution of deltamethrin ITNs (May 2012), a fixed cohort of 1223 children aged 6-59 months was enrolled (April 2013). Children were tested for parasitaemia at monthly scheduled visits and at unscheduled sick visits from May to December 2013 using rapid diagnostic tests. ITN use the prior night and the condition of ITNs (based on presence of holes) was assessed by caregiver self-report. The incidence rate ratio (RR) comparing malaria infection among users and non-users of ITNs was modelled using generalized estimating equations adjusting for potential confounders and accounting for repeated measures on each child. The protective efficacy (PE) of ITN use was calculated as 1 - RR. RESULTS: In this cohort, self-reported ITN use remained consistently high (> 95%) over the study period. Although users of ITNs were slightly more protected compared to non-users of ITNs, the difference in incidence of infection was not statistically significant (RR 0.83, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.54-1.27). Among ITN users, malaria incidence was significantly lower in users of ITNs with no holes (of any size) compared to users of ITNs with ≥ 1 hole (RR 0.82, 95% CI 0.69-0.98). CONCLUSIONS: There was no significant PE of using 1-2 year-old ITNs on the incidence of malaria in children in an area of moderate pyrethroid resistance, but among ITN users, the authors found increased protection by ITNs with no holes compared to ITNs with holes. Given the moderate levels of pyrethroid resistance in the primary malaria vector and recent evidence of added benefits of ITNs with synergists or non-pyrethroid insecticides, next-generation ITNs may be a useful strategy to address pyrethroid resistance and should be further explored in Malawi.

Lexical bias in second language perception: Word position, age of arrival, and native language phonology.

The study examines whether non-native listeners leverage their L2 lexicon during a phonetic identification task and whether lexical bias is influenced by word position and length. Native English and native Mandarin speakers were tested on English words where the natural sibilant was replaced by one member of a nine-step [s]/[ʃ] continuum. English speakers experience a lexical bias effect for longer words. No clear bias was observed for Mandarin participants, although age of arrival correlated with amount of lexical bias but only in the initial position of longer words. These results suggest that language proficiency and higher-order linguistic representations drive perception.

Isosorbide Mononitrate in Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction.

BACKGROUND: Nitrates are commonly prescribed to enhance activity tolerance in patients with heart failure and a preserved ejection fraction. We compared the effect of isosorbide mononitrate or placebo on daily activity in such patients. METHODS: In this multicenter, double-blind, crossover study, 110 patients with heart failure and a preserved ejection fraction were randomly assigned to a 6-week dose-escalation regimen of isosorbide mononitrate (from 30 mg to 60 mg to 120 mg once daily) or placebo, with subsequent crossover to the other group for 6 weeks. The primary end point was the daily activity level, quantified as the average daily accelerometer units during the 120-mg phase, as assessed by patient-worn accelerometers. Secondary end points included hours of activity per day during the 120-mg phase, daily accelerometer units during all three dose regimens, quality-of-life scores, 6-minute walk distance, and levels of N-terminal pro-brain natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP). RESULTS: In the group receiving the 120-mg dose of isosorbide mononitrate, as compared with the placebo group, there was a nonsignificant trend toward lower daily activity (-381 accelerometer units; 95% confidence interval [CI], -780 to 17; P=0.06) and a significant decrease in hours of activity per day (-0.30 hours; 95% CI, -0.55 to -0.05; P=0.02). During all dose regimens, activity in the isosorbide mononitrate group was lower than that in the placebo group (-439 accelerometer units; 95% CI, -792 to -86; P=0.02). Activity levels decreased progressively and significantly with increased doses of isosorbide mononitrate (but not placebo). There were no significant between-group differences in the 6-minute walk distance, quality-of-life scores, or NT-proBNP levels. CONCLUSIONS: Patients with heart failure and a preserved ejection fraction who received isosorbide mononitrate were less active and did not have better quality of life or submaximal exercise capacity than did patients who received placebo. (Funded by the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute; ClinicalTrials.gov number, NCT02053493.).

State-level minimum wage and heart disease death rates in the United States, 1980-2015: A novel application of marginal structural modeling.

Despite substantial declines since the 1960's, heart disease remains the leading cause of death in the United States (US) and geographic disparities in heart disease mortality have grown. State-level socioeconomic factors might be important contributors to geographic differences in heart disease mortality. This study examined the association between state-level minimum wage increases above the federal minimum wage and heart disease death rates from 1980 to 2015 among 'working age' individuals aged 35-64 years in the US. Annual, inflation-adjusted state and federal minimum wage data were extracted from legal databases and annual state-level heart disease death rates were obtained from CDC Wonder. Although most minimum wage and health studies to date use conventional regression models, we employed marginal structural models to account for possible time-varying confounding. Quasi-experimental, marginal structural models accounting for state, year, and state × year fixed effects estimated the association between increases in the state-level minimum wage above the federal minimum wage and heart disease death rates. In models of 'working age' adults (35-64 years old), a $1 increase in the state-level minimum wage above the federal minimum wage was on average associated with ~6 fewer heart disease deaths per 100,000 (95% CI: -10.4, -1.99), or a state-level heart disease death rate that was 3.5% lower per year. In contrast, for older adults (65+ years old) a $1 increase was on average associated with a 1.1% lower state-level heart disease death rate per year (b = -28.9 per 100,000, 95% CI: -71.1, 13.3). State-level economic policies are important targets for population health research.

Unanswered Questions in Contemporary Heart Failure.

OBJECTIVE: The epidemiology of heart failure (HF) is changing. This study aimed to describe questions that arise during the routine care of HF patients that are unanswered by the current literature and describe how the type and focus of these questions has changed over time. METHODS: Investigators from the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute-sponsored Heart Failure Apprentice Network collected and categorized questions from 5 academic hospitals over 12 months. A total of 174 unanswered questions were collected and analyzed. RESULTS: Compared with 2004, there were more unanswered questions about "whether" to use therapies and fewer about "how" to use therapies. There were fewer questions about what therapeutic targets, therapy adjustment, and combination therapies. There were more questions about whether or how to stop therapies and how to add therapies back. Newly prominent topics, not observed in 2004, including novel therapeutics, refractory ventricular tachycardia, right heart failure, and nutrition/frailty, accounted for 24% of questions. CONCLUSIONS: Compared with 2004, there are fewer unanswered questions about how to use, adjust, and combine therapies. There were more unanswered questions about whether and how to stop therapies. Almost 25% of unanswered questions dealt with topics indicative of more advanced disease which were not observed in 2004.

Assessing bed net damage: comparisons of three measurement methods for estimating the size, shape, and distribution of holes on bed nets.

BACKGROUND: Measuring the physical condition of long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs) under field conditions is of great importance for malaria control programmes to guide decisions on how frequently to replace LLINs. Current guidelines by the World Health Organization Pesticide Evaluation Scheme (WHOPES) propose a proportionate hole index (pHI) for assessing LLIN condition by counting the number of holes the size of a thumb, fist, head, and larger than a head. However, this method does not account for irregular hole shapes or exact hole sizes which could result in inaccurate decisions about when to replace LLINs. METHODS: LLINs were collected during a 2013 health facility-based malaria case control study in Machinga District, Malawi. To evaluate the accuracy of the pHI, the physical condition of 277 LLINs was estimated by the WHOPES method and then compared with two more thorough measurement methods: image analysis of digital photographs of each LLIN side; and for 10 nets, ruler measurements of the length, width, and location of each hole. Total hole counts and areas per net were estimated by each method, and detailed results of hole shapes and composite pictures of hole locations were generated using image analysis. RESULTS: The WHOPES method and image analysis resulted in similar estimates of total hole counts, each with a median of 10 (inter-quartile range (IQR) 4-24 and 4-23, respectively; p = 0.004); however, estimated hole areas were significantly larger using the WHOPES method (median 162 cm2, IQR 28-793) than image analysis (median 13 cm2, IQR 3-101; p < 0.0001). The WHOPES method classified fewer LLINs in 'good condition' compared to image analysis (42% vs 74%). The ruler method detected significantly more holes than image analysis did (p = 0.002) in 10 LLINs; however, total hole area was not significantly different (p = 0.16). Most holes were not circular but roughly 2-5 times longer in one direction. The lower quarter of LLIN sides was found to have the most holes. CONCLUSIONS: The WHOPES method overestimated total hole area, likely because holes are elongated rather than circular, suggesting further adjustments to the pHI formula may be warranted when considering LLIN replacement strategies.

The effect of holes in long-lasting insecticidal nets on malaria in Malawi: results from a case-control study.

BACKGROUND: Long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs) are a cornerstone of malaria prevention. Holes develop in LLINs over time and compromise their physical integrity, but how holes affect malaria transmission risk is not well known. METHODS: After a nationwide mass LLIN distribution in July 2012, a study was conducted to assess the relationship between LLIN damage and malaria. From March to September 2013, febrile children ages 6-59 months who consistently slept under LLINs (every night for 2 weeks before illness onset) were enrolled in a case-control study at Machinga District Hospital outpatient department. Cases were positive for Plasmodium falciparum asexual parasites by microscopy while controls were negative. Digital photographs of participants' LLINs were analysed using an image-processing programme to measure holes. Total hole area was classified by quartiles and according to the World Health Organization's proportionate hole index (pHI) cut-offs [< 79 cm2 (good), 80-789 cm2 (damaged), and > 790 cm2 (too torn)]. Number of holes by location and size, and total hole area, were compared between case and control LLINs using non-parametric analyses and logistic regression. RESULTS: Of 248 LLINs analysed, 97 (39%) were from cases. Overall, 86% of LLINs had at least one hole. The median number of holes of any size was 9 [interquartile range (IQR) 3, 22], and most holes were located in the lower halves of the nets [median 7 (IQR 2, 16)]. There were no differences in number or location of holes between LLINs used by cases and controls. The median total hole area was 10 cm2 (IQR 2, 125) for control LLINs and 8 cm2 (IQR 2, 47) for case LLINs (p = 0.10). Based on pHI, 109 (72%) control LLINs and 83 (86%) case LLINs were in "good" condition. Multivariable modeling showed no association between total hole area and malaria, controlling for child age, caregiver education, and iron versus thatched roof houses. CONCLUSIONS: LLIN holes were not associated with increased odds of malaria in this study. However, most of the LLINs were in relatively good condition 1 year after distribution. Future studies should examine associations between LLIN holes and malaria risk with more damaged nets.

Household costs among patients hospitalized with malaria: evidence from a national survey in Malawi, 2012.

BACKGROUND: With 71% of Malawians living on < $1.90 a day, high household costs associated with severe malaria are likely a major economic burden for low income families and may constitute an important barrier to care seeking. Nevertheless, few efforts have been made to examine these costs. This paper describes household costs associated with seeking and receiving inpatient care for malaria in health facilities in Malawi. METHODS: A cross-sectional survey was conducted in a representative nationwide sample of 36 health facilities providing inpatient treatment for malaria from June-August, 2012. Patients admitted at least 12 h before study team visits who had been prescribed an antimalarial after admission were eligible to provide cost information for their malaria episode, including care seeking at previous health facilities. An ingredients-based approach was used to estimate direct costs. Indirect costs were estimated using a human capital approach. Key drivers of total household costs for illness episodes resulting in malaria admission were assessed by fitting a generalized linear model, accounting for clustering at the health facility level. RESULTS: Out of 100 patients who met the eligibility criteria, 80 (80%) provided cost information for their entire illness episode to date and were included: 39% of patients were under 5 years old and 75% had sought care for the malaria episode at other facilities prior to coming to the current facility. Total household costs averaged $17.48 per patient; direct and indirect household costs averaged $7.59 and $9.90, respectively. Facility management type, household distance from the health facility, patient age, high household wealth, and duration of hospital stay were all significant drivers of overall costs. CONCLUSIONS: Although malaria treatment is supposed to be free in public health facilities, households in Malawi still incur high direct and indirect costs for malaria illness episodes that result in hospital admission. Finding ways to minimize the economic burden of inpatient malaria care is crucial to protect households from potentially catastrophic health expenditures.

Health worker adherence to malaria treatment guidelines at outpatient health facilities in southern Malawi following implementation of universal access to diagnostic testing.

BACKGROUND: Appropriate diagnosis and treatment are essential for reducing malaria mortality. A cross-sectional outpatient health facility (HF) survey was conducted in southern Malawi from January to March 2015 to determine appropriate malaria testing and treatment practices four years after implementation of a policy requiring diagnostic confirmation before treatment. METHODS: Enrolled patients were interviewed, examined and had their health booklet reviewed. Health workers (HWs) were asked about training, supervision and access to the 2013 national malaria treatment guidelines. HFs were assessed for malaria diagnostic and treatment capacity. Weighted descriptive analyses and logistic regression of patient, HW and HF characteristics related to testing and treatment were performed. RESULTS: An evaluation of 105 HFs, and interviews of 150 HWs and 2342 patients was completed. Of 1427 suspect uncomplicated malaria patients seen at HFs with testing available, 1072 (75.7%) were tested, and 547 (53.2%) tested positive. Testing was more likely if patients spontaneously reported fever (odds ratio (OR) 2.6; 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.7-4.0), headache (OR 1.5; 95% CI 1.1-2.1) or vomiting (OR 2.0; 95% CI 1.0-4.0) to HWs and less likely if they reported skin problems (OR 0.4; 95% CI 0.2-0.6). Altogether, 511 (92.7%) confirmed cases and 98 (60.3%) of 178 presumed uncomplicated malaria patients (at HFs without testing) were appropriately treated, while 500 (96.6%) of 525 patients with negative tests did not receive anti-malarials. Only eight (5.7%) suspect severe malaria patients received appropriate pre-referral treatment. Appropriate treatment was more likely for presumed uncomplicated malaria patients (at HFs without testing) with elevated temperature (OR 1.5/1 °C increase; 95% CI 1.1-1.9), who reported fever to HWs (OR 5.7; 95% CI 1.9-17.6), were seen by HWs with additional supervision visits in the previous 6 months (OR 1.2/additional visit; 95% CI 1.0-1.4), or were seen by older HWs (OR 1.1/year of age; 95% CI 1.0-1.1). CONCLUSIONS: Correct testing and treatment practices were reasonably good for uncomplicated malaria when testing was available. Pre-referral treatment for suspect severe malaria was unacceptably rare. Encouraging HWs to elicit and appropriately respond to patient symptoms may improve practices.

Effect of Oral Iron Repletion on Exercise Capacity in Patients With Heart Failure With Reduced Ejection Fraction and Iron Deficiency: The IRONOUT HF Randomized Clinical Trial.

IMPORTANCE: Iron deficiency is present in approximately 50% of patients with heart failure with reduced left ventricular ejection fraction (HFrEF) and is an independent predictor of reduced functional capacity and mortality. However, the efficacy of inexpensive readily available oral iron supplementation in heart failure is unknown. OBJECTIVE: To test whether therapy with oral iron improves peak exercise capacity in patients with HFrEF and iron deficiency. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: Phase 2, double-blind, placebo-controlled randomized clinical trial of patients with HFrEF (<40%) and iron deficiency, defined as a serum ferritin level of 15 to 100 ng/mL or a serum ferritin level of 101 to 299 ng/mL with transferrin saturation of less than 20%. Participants were enrolled between September 2014 and November 2015 at 23 US sites. INTERVENTIONS: Oral iron polysaccharide (n = 111) or placebo (n = 114), 150 mg twice daily for 16 weeks. MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES: The primary end point was a change in peak oxygen uptake (V̇o2) from baseline to 16 weeks. Secondary end points were change in 6-minute walk distance, plasma N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP) levels, and health status as assessed by Kansas City Cardiomyopathy Questionnaire (KCCQ, range 0-100, higher scores reflect better quality of life). RESULTS: Among 225 randomized participants (median age, 63 years; 36% women) 203 completed the study. The median baseline peak V̇o2 was 1196 mL/min (interquartile range [IQR], 887-1448 mL/min) in the oral iron group and 1167 mL/min (IQR, 887-1449 mL/min) in the placebo group. The primary end point, change in peak V̇o2 at 16 weeks, did not significantly differ between the oral iron and placebo groups (+23 mL/min vs -2 mL/min; difference, 21 mL/min [95% CI, -34 to +76 mL/min]; P = .46). Similarly, at 16 weeks, there were no significant differences between treatment groups in changes in 6-minute walk distance (-13 m; 95% CI, -32 to 6 m), NT-proBNP levels (159; 95% CI, -280 to 599 pg/mL), or KCCQ score (1; 95% CI, -2.4 to 4.4), all P > .05. CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE: Among participants with HFrEF with iron deficiency, high-dose oral iron did not improve exercise capacity over 16 weeks. These results do not support use of oral iron supplementation in patients with HFrEF. TRIAL REGISTRATION: clinicaltrials.gov Identifier: NCT02188784.

Effects of Xanthine Oxidase Inhibition in Hyperuricemic Heart Failure Patients: The Xanthine Oxidase Inhibition for Hyperuricemic Heart Failure Patients (EXACT-HF) Study.

BACKGROUND: Oxidative stress may contribute to heart failure (HF) progression. Inhibiting xanthine oxidase in hyperuricemic HF patients may improve outcomes. METHODS AND RESULTS: We randomly assigned 253 patients with symptomatic HF, left ventricular ejection fraction ≤40%, and serum uric acid levels ≥9.5 mg/dL to receive allopurinol (target dose, 600 mg daily) or placebo in a double-blind, multicenter trial. The primary composite end point at 24 weeks was based on survival, worsening HF, and patient global assessment. Secondary end points included change in quality of life, submaximal exercise capacity, and left ventricular ejection fraction. Uric acid levels were significantly reduced with allopurinol in comparison with placebo (treatment difference, -4.2 [-4.9, -3.5] mg/dL and -3.5 [-4.2, -2.7] mg/dL at 12 and 24 weeks, respectively, both P<0.0001). At 24 weeks, there was no significant difference in clinical status between the allopurinol- and placebo-treated patients (worsened 45% versus 46%, unchanged 42% versus 34%, improved 13% versus 19%, respectively; P=0.68). At 12 and 24 weeks, there was no significant difference in change in Kansas City Cardiomyopathy Questionnaire scores or 6-minute walk distances between the 2 groups. At 24 weeks, left ventricular ejection fraction did not change in either group or between groups. Rash occurred more frequently with allopurinol (10% versus 2%, P=0.01), but there was no difference in serious adverse event rates between the groups (20% versus 15%, P=0.36). CONCLUSIONS: In high-risk HF patients with reduced ejection fraction and elevated uric acid levels, xanthine oxidase inhibition with allopurinol failed to improve clinical status, exercise capacity, quality of life, or left ventricular ejection fraction at 24 weeks. CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION: URL: http://www.clinicaltrials.gov. Unique identifier: NCT00987415.