A Review on a Hidden Gem: Phycoerythrin from Blue-Green Algae.

Phycoerythrin (PE) is a pink/red-colored pigment found in rhodophytes, cryptophytes, and blue-green algae (cyanobacteria). The interest in PE is emerging from its role in delivering health benefits. Unfortunately, the current cyanobacterial-PE (C-PE) knowledge is still in the infant stage. It is essential to acquire a more comprehensive understanding of C-PE. This study aimed to review the C-PE structure, up and downstream processes of C-PE, application of C-PE, and strategies to enhance its stability and market value. In addition, this study also presented a strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (SWOT) analysis on C-PE. Cyanobacteria appeared to be the more promising PE producers compared to rhodophytes, cryptophytes, and macroalgae. Green/blue light is preferred to accumulate higher PE content in cyanobacteria. Currently, the prominent C-PE extraction method is repeated freezing-thawing. A combination of precipitation and chromatography approaches is proposed to obtain greater purity of C-PE. C-PE has been widely exploited in various fields, such as nutraceuticals, pharmaceuticals, therapeutics, cosmetics, biotechnology, food, and feed, owing to its bioactivities and fluorescent properties. This review provides insight into the state-of-art nature of C-PE and advances a step further in commercializing this prospective pigment.

Fucoxanthin Production of Microalgae under Different Culture Factors: A Systematic Review.

Fucoxanthin is one of the light-harvesting pigments in brown microalgae, which is increasingly gaining attention due to its numerous health-promoting properties. Currently, the production of microalgal fucoxanthin is not yet feasible from an economic perspective. However, the cultivation of microalgae at favourable conditions holds great potential to increase the viability of this fucoxanthin source. Hence, this study aimed to review the fucoxanthin production of microalgae under different conditions systematically. A literature search was performed using the Web of Science, Scopus and PubMed databases. A total of 188 articles were downloaded and 28 articles were selected for the current review by two independent authors. Microalgae appeared to be a more reliable fucoxanthin source compared to macroalgae. Overall, a consensus fucoxanthin production condition was obtained and proposed: light intensity ranging from 10 to 100 µmol/m2/s could achieve a higher fucoxanthin content. However, the optimal light condition in producing fucoxanthin is species-specific. The current review serves as an antecedent by offering insights into the fucoxanthin-producing microalgae response to different culture factors via a systematic analysis. With the current findings and recommendations, the feasibility of producing fucoxanthin commercially could be enhanced and possibly achieve practical and sustainable fucoxanthin production.

EgJUB1 and EgERF113 transcription factors as potential master regulators of defense response in Elaeis guineensis against the hemibiotrophic Ganoderma boninense.

BACKGROUND: Hemibiotrophic pathogen such as the fungal pathogen Ganoderma boninense that is destructive to oil palm, manipulates host defense mechanism by strategically switching from biotrophic to necrotrophic phase. Our previous study revealed two distinguishable expression profiles of oil palm genes that formed the basis in deducing biotrophic phase at early interaction which switched to necrotrophic phase at a later stage of infection. RESULTS: The present report is a continuing study from our previous published transcriptomic profiling of oil palm seedlings against G. boninense. We focused on identifying differentially expressed genes (DEGs) encoding transcription factors (TFs) from the same RNA-seq data; resulting in 106 upregulated and 108 downregulated TFs being identified. The DEGs are involved in four established defense-related pathways responsible for cell wall modification, reactive oxygen species (ROS)-mediated signaling, programmed cell death (PCD) and plant innate immunity. We discovered upregulation of JUNGBRUNNEN 1 (EgJUB1) during the fungal biotrophic phase while Ethylene Responsive Factor 113 (EgERF113) demonstrated prominent upregulation when the palm switches to defense against necrotrophic phase. EgJUB1 was shown to have a binding activity to a 19 bp palindromic SNBE1 element, WNNYBTNNNNNNNAMGNHW found in the promoter region of co-expressing EgHSFC-2b. Further in silico analysis of promoter regions revealed co-expression of EgJUB1 with TFs containing SNBE1 element with single nucleotide change at either the 5th or 18th position. Meanwhile, EgERF113 binds to both GCC and DRE/CRT elements promoting plasticity in upregulating the downstream defense-related genes. Both TFs were proven to be nuclear-localized based on subcellular localization experiment using onion epidermal cells. CONCLUSION: Our findings demonstrated unprecedented transcriptional reprogramming of specific TFs potentially to enable regulation of a specific set of genes during different infection phases of this hemibiotrophic fungal pathogen. The results propose the intricacy of oil palm defense response in orchestrating EgJUB1 during biotrophic and EgERF113 during the subsequent transition to the necrotrophic phase. Binding of EgJUB1 to SNBE motif instead of NACBS while EgERF113 to GCC-box and DRE/CRT motifs is unconventional and not normally associated with pathogen infection. Identification of these phase-specific oil palm TFs is important in designing strategies to tackle or attenuate the progress of infection.

The Critical Studies of Fucoxanthin Research Trends from 1928 to June 2021: A Bibliometric Review.

Fucoxanthin is a major carotenoid in brown macroalgae and diatoms that possesses a broad spectrum of health benefits. This review evaluated the research trends of the fucoxanthin field from 1928 to June 2021 using the bibliometric method. The present findings unraveled that the fucoxanthin field has grown quickly in recent years with a total of 2080 publications. Japan was the most active country in producing fucoxanthin publications. Three Japan institutes were listed in the top ten productive institutions, with Hokkaido University being the most prominent institutional contributor in publishing fucoxanthin articles. The most relevant subject area on fucoxanthin was the agricultural and biological sciences category, while most fucoxanthin articles were published in Marine Drugs. A total of four research concepts emerged based on the bibliometric keywords analysis: "bioactivities", "photosynthesis", "optimization of process'', and "environment". The "bioactivities" of fucoxanthin was identified as the priority in future research. The current analysis highlighted the importance of collaboration and suggested that global collaboration could be the key to valorizing and efficiently boosting the consumer acceptability of fucoxanthin. The present bibliometric analysis offers valuable insights into the research trends of fucoxanthin to construct a better future development of this treasurable carotenoid.

RNA-Seq analysis revealed genes associated with UV-induced cell necrosis through MAPK/TNF-α pathways in human dermal fibroblast cells as an inducer of premature photoaging.

Exposing the skin to solar UV radiation induces cascades of signaling pathways and biological alterations such as redox imbalance, suppression of antioxidant genes and programmed cell death. Therefore, the aim of this study was to use RNA-Seq to unravel the effects of UV radiation on Normal Human Adult Fibroblast cells (NHDF). Cells were exposed to UV (20 mJ/cm2 for 3 mins) and incubated for 24 h. Total mRNA from the cells generated libraries of 72,080,648 and 40,750,939 raw reads from UV-treated and control cells respectively. Of the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) produced 2,007 were up-regulated and 2,791 were down-regulated (fold change ≥2, p < 0.05). The expression of 4 genes was validated with RT-qPCR. Chemokine signaling pathways in cancer were significantly activated and antioxidant genes were down-regulated. This study applied Next Generation Sequencing technology to reveal the genes and pathways involved in UV-induced human dermal fibroblast cells necrosis.

Statistical Optimisation of Phenol Degradation and Pathway Identification through Whole Genome Sequencing of the Cold-Adapted Antarctic Bacterium, Rhodococcus sp. Strain AQ5-07.

Study of the potential of Antarctic microorganisms for use in bioremediation is of increasing interest due to their adaptations to harsh environmental conditions and their metabolic potential in removing a wide variety of organic pollutants at low temperature. In this study, the psychrotolerant bacterium Rhodococcus sp. strain AQ5-07, originally isolated from soil from King George Island (South Shetland Islands, maritime Antarctic), was found to be capable of utilizing phenol as sole carbon and energy source. The bacterium achieved 92.91% degradation of 0.5 g/L phenol under conditions predicted by response surface methodology (RSM) within 84 h at 14.8 °C, pH 7.05, and 0.41 g/L ammonium sulphate. The assembled draft genome sequence (6.75 Mbp) of strain AQ5-07 was obtained through whole genome sequencing (WGS) using the Illumina Hiseq platform. The genome analysis identified a complete gene cluster containing catA, catB, catC, catR, pheR, pheA2, and pheA1. The genome harbours the complete enzyme systems required for phenol and catechol degradation while suggesting phenol degradation occurs via the ß-ketoadipate pathway. Enzymatic assay using cell-free crude extract revealed catechol 1,2-dioxygenase activity while no catechol 2,3-dioxygenase activity was detected, supporting this suggestion. The genomic sequence data provide information on gene candidates responsible for phenol and catechol degradation by indigenous Antarctic bacteria and contribute to knowledge of microbial aromatic metabolism and genetic biodiversity in Antarctica.

Characterization of promoter of EgPAL1, a novel PAL gene from the oil palm Elaeis guineensis Jacq.

KEY MESSAGE: The oil palm EgPAL1 gene promoter and its regulatory region were functional as a promoter in the heterologous system of Arabidopsis according to the cis-acting elements present in that region. The promoter was developmentally regulated, vascular tissue specific and responsive to water stress agents. Phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL, EC 4.3.1.24) is the key enzyme of the phenylpropanoid pathway which plays important roles in plant development and adaptation. To date, there is no report on the study of PAL from oil palm (Elaeis guineensis), an economically important oil crop. In this study, the 5' regulatory sequence of a highly divergent oil palm PAL gene (EgPAL1) was isolated and fused with GUS in Arabidopsis to create two transgenic plants carrying the minimal promoter with (2302 bp) and without its regulatory elements (139 bp). The regulatory sequence contained cis-acting elements known to be important for plant development and stress response including the AC-II element for lignin biosynthesis and several stress responsive elements. The promoter and its regulatory region were fully functional in Arabidopsis. Its activities were characterised by two common fundamental features of PAL which are responsive to plant internal developmental programme and external factors. The promoter was developmentally regulated in certain organs; highly active in young organs but less active or inactive in mature organs. The presence of the AC elements and global activity of the EgPAL1 promoter in all organs resembled the property of lignin-related genes. The existence of the MBS element and enhancement of the promoter activity by PEG reflected the behaviour of drought-responsive genes. Our findings provide a platform for evaluating oil palm gene promoters in the heterologous system of Arabidopsis and give insights into the activities of EgPAL1 promoter in oil palm.

GCTTCA as a novel motif for regulating mesocarp-specific expression of the oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) stearoyl-ACP desaturase gene.

KEY MESSAGE: TAAAAT and a novel motif, GCTTCA found in the oil palm stearoyl-ACP desaturase (SAD1) promoter are involved in regulating mesocarp-specific expression. Two key fatty acid biosynthetic genes, stearoyl-ACP desaturase (SAD1), and acyl-carrier protein (ACP3) in Elaeis guineensis (oil palm) showed high level of expression during the period of oil synthesis in the mesocarp [12-19 weeks after anthesis (w.a.a.)] and kernel (12-15 w.a.a.). Both genes are expressed in spear leaves at much lower levels and the expression increased by 1.5-fold to 2.5-fold following treatments with ethylene and abscisic acid (ABA). Both SAD1 and ACP3 promoters contain phytohormone-responsive, light-responsive, abiotic factors/wounding-responsive, endosperm specificity and fruit maturation/ripening regulatory motifs. The activities of the full length and six 5' deletion fragments of the SAD1 promoter were analyzed in transiently transformed oil palm tissues by quantitative ß-glucuronidase (GUS) fluorometric assay. The highest SAD1 promoter activity was observed in the mesocarp followed by kernel and the least in the leaves. GUS activity in the D3 deletion construct (- 486 to + 108) was the highest, while the D2 (- 535 to + 108) gave the lowest suggesting the presence of negative cis-acting regulatory element(s) in the deleted - 535 to - 486 (49 bp). It was found that the 49-bp region binds to the nuclear protein extract from mesocarp but not from leaves in electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA). Further fine-tuned analysis of this 49-bp region using truncated DNA led to the identification of GCTTCA as a novel motif in the SAD1 promoter. Interestingly, another known fruit ripening-related motif, LECPLEACS2 (TAAAAT) was found to be required for effective binding of the novel motif to the mesocarp nuclear protein extract.

A Critical Review of the Concept of Transgenic Plants: Insights into Pharmaceutical Biotechnology and Molecular Farming.

Using transgenic plants for the production of high-value recombinant proteins for industrial and clinical applications has become a promising alternative to using conventional bioproduction systems, such as bacteria, yeast, and cultured insect and animal cells. This novel system offers several advantages over conventional systems in terms of safety, scale, cost-effectiveness, and the ease of distribution and storage. Currently, plant systems are being utilised as recombinant bio-factories for the expression of various proteins, including potential vaccines and pharmaceuticals, through employing several adaptations of recombinant processes and utilizing the most suitable tools and strategies. The level of protein expression is a critical factor in plant molecular farming, and this level fluctuates according to the plant species and the organs involved. The production of recombinant native and engineered proteins is a complicated procedure that requires an inter- and multi-disciplinary effort involving a wide variety of scientific and technological disciplines, ranging from basic biotechnology, biochemistry, and cell biology to advanced production systems. This review considers important plant resources, affecting factors, and the recombinant-protein expression techniques relevant to the plant molecular farming process.

Structure and Principal Components Analyses Reveal an Intervarietal Fusion in Malaysian Mistletoe Fig (Ficus deltoidea Jack) Populations.

Genetic structure and biodiversity of the medicinal plant Ficus deltoidea have rarely been scrutinized. To fill these lacunae, five varieties, consisting of 30 F. deltoidea accessions were collected across the country and studied on the basis of molecular and morphological data. Molecular analysis of the accessions was performed using nine Inter Simple Sequence Repeat (ISSR) markers, seven of which were detected as polymorphic markers. ISSR-based clustering generated four clusters supporting the geographical distribution of the accessions to some extent. The Jaccard's similarity coefficient implied the existence of low diversity (0.50-0.75) in the studied population. STRUCTURE analysis showed a low differentiation among the sampling sites, while a moderate varietal differentiation was unveiled with two main populations of F. deltoidea. Our observations confirmed the occurrence of gene flow among the accessions; however, the highest degree of this genetic interference was related to the three accessions of FDDJ10, FDTT16 and FDKT25. These three accessions may be the genetic intervarietal fusion points of the plant's population. Principal Components Analysis (PCA) relying on quantitative morphological characteristics resulted in two principal components with Eigenvalue >1 which made up 89.96% of the total variation. The cluster analysis performed by the eight quantitative characteristics led to grouping the accessions into four clusters with a Euclidean distance ranged between 0.06 and 1.10. Similarly, a four-cluster dendrogram was generated using qualitative traits. The qualitative characteristics were found to be more discriminating in the cluster and PCA analyses, while ISSRs were more informative on the evolution and genetic structure of the population.

Functional characterization of sesquiterpene synthase from Polygonum minus.

Polygonum minus is an aromatic plant, which contains high abundance of terpenoids, especially the sesquiterpenes C15H24. Sesquiterpenes were believed to contribute to the many useful biological properties in plants. This study aimed to functionally characterize a full length sesquiterpene synthase gene from P. minus. P. minus sesquiterpene synthase (PmSTS) has a complete open reading frame (ORF) of 1689 base pairs encoding a 562 amino acid protein. Similar to other sesquiterpene synthases, PmSTS has two large domains: the N-terminal domain and the C-terminal metal-binding domain. It also consists of three conserved motifs: the DDXXD, NSE/DTE, and RXR. A three-dimensional protein model for PmSTS built clearly distinguished the two main domains, where conserved motifs were highlighted. We also constructed a phylogenetic tree, which showed that PmSTS belongs to the angiosperm sesquiterpene synthase subfamily Tps-a. To examine the function of PmSTS, we expressed this gene in Arabidopsis thaliana. Two transgenic lines, designated as OE3 and OE7, were further characterized, both molecularly and functionally. The transgenic plants demonstrated smaller basal rosette leaves, shorter and fewer flowering stems, and fewer seeds compared to wild type plants. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis of the transgenic plants showed that PmSTS was responsible for the production of ß -sesquiphellandrene.

Towards DNA-free CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing for sustainable oil palm improvement.

The CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing system has been in the spotlight compared to programmable nucleases such as ZFNs and TALENs due to its simplicity, versatility, and high efficiency. CRISPR/Cas9 has revolutionized plant genetic engineering and is broadly used to edit various plants' genomes, including those transformation-recalcitrant species such as oil palm. This review will comprehensively present the CRISPR-Cas9 system's brief history and underlying mechanisms. We then highlighted the establishment of the CRISPR/Cas9 system in plants with an emphasis on the strategies of highly efficient guide RNA design, the establishment of various CRISPR/Cas9 vector systems, approaches of multiplex editing, methods of transformation for stable and transient techniques, available methods for detecting and analyzing mutations, which have been applied and could be adopted for CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing in oil palm. In addition, we also provide insight into the strategy of DNA-free genome editing and its potential application in oil palm.

Effects of heavy metals on bacterial growth parameters in degradation of phenol by an Antarctic bacterial consortium.

Antarctica has often been perceived as a pristine continent until the recent few decades as pollutants have been observed accruing in the Antarctic environment. Irresponsible human activities such as accidental oil spills, waste incineration and sewage disposal are among the primary anthropogenic sources of heavy metal contaminants in Antarctica. Natural sources including animal excrement, volcanism and geological weathering also contribute to the increase of heavy metals in the ecosystem. A microbial growth model is presented for the growth of a bacterial cell consortium used in the biodegradation of phenol in media containing different metal ions, namely arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), aluminium (Al), nickel (Ni), silver (Ag), lead (Pb) and cobalt (Co). Bacterial growth was inhibited by these ions in the rank order of Al < As < Co < Pb < Ni < Cd < Ag. Greatest bacterial growth occurred in 1 ppm Al achieving an OD600 of 0.985 and lowest in 1 ppm Ag with an OD600 of 0.090. At a concentration of 1.0 ppm, Ag had a considerable effect on the bacterial consortium, inhibiting the degradation of phenol, whereas this concentration of the other metal ions tested had no effect on degradation. The biokinetic growth model developed supports the suitability of the bacterial consortium for use in phenol degradation.

Harnessing Diesel-Degrading Potential of an Antarctic Microalga from Greenwich Island and Its Physiological Adaptation.

Microalgae are well known for their metal sorption capacities, but their potential in the remediation of hydrophobic organic compounds has received little attention in polar regions. We evaluated in the laboratory the ability of an Antarctic microalga to remediate diesel hydrocarbons and also investigated physiological changes consequent upon diesel exposure. Using a polyphasic taxonomic approach, the microalgal isolate, WCY_AQ5_1, originally sampled from Greenwich Island (South Shetland Islands, maritime Antarctica) was identified as Tritostichococcus sp. (OQ225631), a recently erected lineage within the redefined Stichococcus clade. Over a nine-day experimental incubation, 57.6% of diesel (~3.47 g/L) was removed via biosorption and biodegradation, demonstrating the strain's potential for phytoremediation. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy confirmed the adsorption of oil in accordance with its hydrophobic characteristics. Overall, degradation predominated over sorption of diesel. Chromatographic analysis confirmed that the strain efficiently metabolised medium-chain length n-alkanes (C-7 to C-21), particularly n-heneicosane. Mixotrophic cultivation using diesel as the organic carbon source under a constant light regime altered the car/chl-a ratio and triggered vacuolar activities. A small number of intracellular lipid droplets were observed on the seventh day of cultivation in transmission electron microscopic imaging. This is the first confirmation of diesel remediation ability in an Antarctic green microalga.

Functional characterization of the MSP-C6 promoter as a potential tool for mesocarp-preferential expression of transgenes.

Modification of lipid composition in the mesocarp tissue of oil palm involves genetic manipulation of multiple genes. More than one mesocarp-preferential promoter is necessary for the expression of individual transgenes in the same plant to obviate transcriptional gene silencing. This study aimed to identify genes that are preferentially expressed in the mesocarp tissue and characterize selected candidate mesocarp-preferential promoters. Ten transcripts that were preferentially expressed in the mesocarp tissue were identified from the analysis of 82 transcriptome datasets of 12 different oil palm tissues. The expression of two candidate genes, MSP-C1 and MSP-C6, was verified to be preferentially expressed in the mesocarp tissues and shown to have a low expression level in non-mesocarp tissues by reverse transcription quantitative real-time PCR (RT-qPCR). MSP-C6 promoter fragments of different lengths were transformed into tomato plants for further characterization. Both unripe and ripe fruits of transgenic tomato plants transformed with a construct harboring the MSP-C6-F1 (2014 bp) promoter were shown to have high beta-glucuronidase (GUS) activities. The findings of this study suggest the potential applications of the MSP-C6 promoter as a molecular tool for genetic engineering of novel traits in fruit crops.

The Utilisation of Antarctic Microalgae Isolated from Paradise Bay (Antarctic Peninsula) in the Bioremediation of Diesel.

Research has confirmed that the utilisation of Antarctic microorganisms, such as bacteria, yeasts and fungi, in the bioremediation of diesel may provide practical alternative approaches. However, to date there has been very little attention towards Antarctic microalgae as potential hydrocarbon degraders. Therefore, this study focused on the utilisation of an Antarctic microalga in the bioremediation of diesel. The studied microalgal strain was originally obtained from a freshwater ecosystem in Paradise Bay, western Antarctic Peninsula. When analysed in systems with and without aeration, this microalgal strain achieved a higher growth rate under aeration. To maintain the growth of this microalga optimally, a conventional one-factor-at a-time (OFAT) analysis was also conducted. Based on the optimized parameters, algal growth and diesel degradation performance was highest at pH 7.5 with 0.5 mg/L NaCl concentration and 0.5 g/L of NaNO3 as a nitrogen source. This currently unidentified microalga flourished in the presence of diesel, with maximum algal cell numbers on day 7 of incubation in the presence of 1% v/v diesel. Chlorophyll a, b and carotenoid contents of the culture were greatest on day 9 of incubation. The diesel degradation achieved was 64.5% of the original concentration after 9 days. Gas chromatography analysis showed the complete mineralisation of C7-C13 hydrocarbon chains. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy analysis confirmed that strain WCY_AQ5_3 fully degraded the hydrocarbon with bioabsorption of the products. Morphological and molecular analyses suggested that this spherical, single-celled green microalga was a member of the genus Micractinium. The data obtained confirm that this microalga is a suitable candidate for further research into the degradation of diesel in Antarctica.

Oil Palm's Empty Fruit Bunch as a Sorbent Material in Filter System for Oil-Spill Clean Up.

Oil pollution such as diesel poses a significant threat to the environment. Due to this, there is increasing interest in using natural materials mainly from agricultural waste as organic oil spill sorbents. Oil palm's empty fruit bunch (EFB), a cost-effective material, non-toxic, renewable resource, and abundantly available in Malaysia, contains cellulosic materials that have been proven to show a good result in pollution treatment. This study evaluated the optimum screening part of EFB that efficiently absorbs oil and the physicochemical characterisation of untreated and treated EFB fibre using Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM). The treatment conditions were optimised using one-factor-at-a-time (OFAT), which identified optimal treatment conditions of 170 °C, 20 min, 0.1 g/cm3, and 10% diesel, resulting in 23 mL of oil absorbed. The predicted model was highly significant in statistical Response Surface Methodology (RSM) and confirmed that all the parameters (temperature, time, packing density, and diesel concentration) significantly influenced the oil absorbed. The predicted values in RSM were 175 °C, 22.5 min, 0.095 g/cm3, and 10%, which resulted in 24 mL of oil absorbed. Using the experimental values generated by RSM, 175 °C, 22.5 min, 0.095 g/cm3, and 10%, the highest oil absorption achieved was 24.33 mL. This study provides further evidence, as the data suggested that RSM provided a better approach to obtain a high efficiency of oil absorbed.

Uncovering Research Trends of Phycobiliproteins Using Bibliometric Approach.

Phycobiliproteins are gaining popularity as long-term, high-value natural products which can be alternatives to synthetic products. This study analyzed research trends of phycobiliproteins from 1909 to 2020 using a bibliometric approach based on the Scopus database. The current findings showed that phycobiliprotein is a burgeoning field in terms of publications outputs with "biochemistry, genetics, and molecular biology" as the most related and focused subject. The Journal of Applied Phycology was the most productive journal in publishing articles on phycobiliproteins. Although the United States of America (U.S.A.) contributed the most publications on phycobiliproteins, the Chinese Academy of Sciences (China) is the institution with the largest number of publications. The most productive author on phycobiliproteins was Glazer, Alexander N. (U.S.A.). The U.S.A. and Germany were at the forefront of international collaboration in this field. According to the keyword analysis, the most explored theme was the optimization of microalgae culture parameters and phycobiliproteins extraction methods. The bioactivity properties and extraction of phycobiliproteins were identified as future research priorities. Synechococcus and Arthrospira were the most cited genera. This study serves as an initial step in fortifying the phycobiliproteins market, which is expected to exponentially expand in the future. Moreover, further research and global collaboration are necessary to commercialize phycobiliproteins and increase the consumer acceptability of the pigments and their products.

Identification of Oil Palm's Consistently Upregulated Genes during Early Infections of Ganoderma boninense via RNA-Seq Technology and Real-Time Quantitative PCR.

Basal stem rot (BSR) disease caused by pathogenic fungus Ganoderma boninense is a significant concern in the oil palm industry. G. boninense infection in oil palm induces defense-related genes. To understand oil palm defense mechanisms in response to fungal invasion, we analyzed differentially expressed genes (DEGs) derived from RNA-sequencing (RNA-seq) transcriptomic libraries of oil palm roots infected with G. boninense. A total of 126 DEGs were detected from the transcriptomic libraries of G. boninense-infected root tissues at different infection stages. Functional annotation via pathway enrichment analyses revealed that the DEGs were involved in the defense response against the pathogen. The expression of the selected DEGs was further confirmed using real-time quantitative PCR (qPCR) on independent oil palm seedlings and mature palm samples. Seven putative defense-related DEGs consistently showed upregulation in seedlings and mature plants during G. boninense infection. These seven genes might potentially be developed as biomarkers for the early detection of BSR in oil palm.

A Recommendation for a Pre-Standardized Marine Microalgal Dry Weight Determination Protocol for Laboratory Scale Culture Using Ammonium Formate as a Washing Agent.

Microalgal biomass is one of the crucial criteria in microalgal studies. Many reported methods, even the well-established protocol on microalgal dry weight (DW) determination, vary greatly, and reliable comparative assessment amongst published results could be problematic. This study aimed to determine the best condition of critical parameters in marine microalgal DW determination for laboratory-scale culture using four different marine microalgal species. These parameters included the washing process, grades of glass microfiber filter (GMF), GMF pretreatment conditions, washing agent (ammonium formate) concentrations, culture: washing agent ratios (v:v) and washing cycles. GMF grade GF/A with precombustion at 450 °C provided the most satisfactory DW and the highest ash-free dry weight (AFDW)/DW ratio. Furthermore, 0.05 M ammonium formate with 1:2 culture: washing agent ratio and a minimum of two washing cycles appeared to be the best settings of microalgal DW determination. The present treatment increased the AFDW/DW ratio of the four respective microalgae by a minimum of 19%. The findings of this study could serve as a pivotal reference in developing a standardized protocol of marine microalgal DW determination to obtain veracious and reliable marine microalgal DW.