Incident Kaposi sarcoma during the expansion of antiretroviral therapy eligibility in Nigeria: a retrospective cohort study.

INTRODUCTION: The expansion of antiretroviral therapy (ART) eligibility could lead to earlier initiation of Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) treatment and consequently reduce the risk of HIV-associated Kaposi Sarcoma (KS). We investigated the impact of changes in the Nigerian HIV treatment guidelines on KS incidence among adults enrolled in HIV care in Nigeria. METHODS: We analyzed data of adults who enrolled for HIV care from January 2006 to December 2016 at one of Nigeria's largest HIV treatment centers. Based on changes in HIV treatment guidelines, we classified 2006-2009 as the pre-expansion period and 2010-2016 as the post-expansion period. We used Kaplan Meier curves to compare the incidence of KS in the pre-expansion to the post-expansion period. We used Cox regression models to assess the hazard for incident KS between the two periods after adjusting for potential confounders. RESULTS: Among 14,479 patients with HIV, the overall KS incidence was 2.35; 95% CI 2.01-2.74/1,000 person-years. The incidence of KS decreased from 2.53 to 1.58 per 1,000 person-years from 2006 to 2009 to 2010-2016. In models adjusting for age, sex, CD4-T cell count, and ART use, the risk for KS remained lower in 2010-2016 compared to 2006-2009. In analyses restricted to time on ART, there was no significant difference in KS incidence between HIV patients who enrolled in 2006-2009 and 2010-2016 after adjusting for age, sex, and CD4 T-cell count. CONCLUSION: The expansion of ART eligibility was associated with a reduced incidence of HIV-associated KS among adults initiating HIV care in Jos, Nigeria. The reduction was likely driven by earlier enrollment for HIV care and ART initiation.

Double stigma: a cross-sectional study of Lassa patients with hearing loss in North Central Nigeria.

Introduction: Lassa fever is a zoonotic infectious disease endemic in West Africa with a high case-fatality rate and reported stigmatization of surviving patients. This study examines discrimination among survivors of Lassa fever (LF) complicated by hearing loss (HL). Methods: This cross-sectional qualitative study used an in-depth interview guide to collect information from patients with HL about their experience of stigma. Interviews were conducted by a trained team of interviewers at the Jos University Teaching Hospital between January and April 2022 in Hausa language after informed consent was obtained. Recordings of the interviews were transcribed and translated from Hausa to English. Data analysis was conducted using NVivo software using a thematic framework approach. Results: Most (73%) respondents were male (n = 11); 27% were female (n = 4). The median age was 35 years (interquartile range, 16.5). Some Lassa fever patients experienced stigma and discrimination (53%) including isolation and withdrawal of family and community support during and after illness. HL increased stigma, as some patients were labeled "deaf" by other community members, increasing perceived stigma and devaluation. HL affected the socio-economic wellbeing of some who could not communicate well with their families and customers and constrained social interactions, evoking pain and apathy. Some survivors of LF and victims of its sequelae of HL experienced double stigmatization. While they were ill with LF, a third of respondents reported avoidance and isolation by family and community members who withdrew care and support both to them and their close family members. These forms of stigmatization strained their relationships. Conclusion: There is a need to address stigma in LF survivors who develop HL through concerted community-owned awareness to improve their quality of life along with a robust social support system to aid prevention.

Performance evaluation of SARS-CoV-2 rapid diagnostic tests in Nigeria: A cross-sectional study.

The COVID-19 pandemic challenged health systems globally. Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) is the gold standard for detecting the presence of SARS-CoV-2 in clinical samples. Rapid diagnostic test (RDT) kits for COVID-19 have been widely used in Nigeria. This has greatly improved test turnover rates and significantly decreased the high technical demands of RT-PCR. However, there is currently no nationally representative evaluation of the performance characteristics and reliability of these kits. This study assessed the sensitivity, specificity, and predictive values of ten RDT kits used for COVID-19 testing in Nigeria. This large multi-centred cross-sectional study was conducted across the 6 geo-political zones of Nigeria over four months. Ten antigen (Ag) and antibody (Ab) RDT kits were evaluated, and the results were compared with RT-PCR. One thousand, three hundred and ten (1,310) consenting adults comprising 767 (58.5%) males and 543 (41.5%) females participated in the study. The highest proportion, 757 (57.7%), were in the 20-39 years' age group. In terms of diagnostic performance, Lumira Dx (61.4, 95% CI: 52.4-69.9) had the highest sensitivity while MP SARS and Panbio (98.5, 95% CI: 96.6-99.5) had the highest specificity. For predictive values, Panbio (90.7, 95% CI: 79.7-96.9) and Lumira Dx (81.2, 95% CI: 75.9-85.7) recorded the highest PPV and NPV respectively. Ag-RDTs had better performance characteristics compared with Ab-RDTs; however, the sensitivities of all RDTs in this study were generally low. The relatively high specificity of Ag-RDTs makes them useful for the diagnosis of infection in COVID-19 suspected cases where positive RDT may not require confirmation by molecular testing. There is therefore the need to develop RDTs in-country that will take into consideration the unique environmental factors, interactions with other infectious agents, and strains of the virus circulating locally. This may enhance the precision of rapid and accurate diagnosis of COVID-19 in Nigeria.

Analysis of sensorineural hearing loss in patients attending an otolaryngology clinic in North Central Nigeria.

Hearing loss is the third leading cause of years lived with disability. Approximately 1.4 billion people have hearing loss, of which 80% reside in low- and middle-income countries with limited audiology and otolaryngology care available to them. The objective of this study was to estimate period prevalence of hearing loss and audiogram patterns of patients attending an otolaryngology clinic in North Central Nigeria. A 10-year retrospective cohort study was carried out analyzing 1507 patient records of pure tone audiograms of patients at the otolaryngology clinic at Jos University Teaching Hospital, Plateau State, Nigeria. Prevalence of hearing loss of moderate or higher grade increased significantly and steadily after age 60. Compared to other studies, there was a higher prevalence of overall sensorineural hearing loss (24-28% in our study compared to 1.7-8.4% globally) and higher proportions of the flat audiogram configuration among the younger age patients (40% in younger patients compared to 20% in patients older than 60 years). The higher prevalence of the flat audiogram configuration compared to other parts of the world may be suggestive of an etiology specific to this region, such as the endemic Lassa Fever and Lassa virus infection in addition to cytomegalovirus or other viral infections associated with hearing loss.

A multicenter survey of asymptomatic cryptococcal antigenemia among patients with advanced HIV disease in Nigeria.

As of 2018, cryptococcal antigen (CrAg) screening in patients with advanced human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) disease (AHD) was not routinely implemented in Nigeria despite being recommended in the national HIV treatment guidelines. Our aim was to determine the prevalence and risk factors for asymptomatic cryptococcal antigenemia in adult people living with HIV (PLHIV) in Nigeria to advocate for the implementation of routine CrAg screening. A descriptive cross-sectional study and CrAg screening of consecutive adult PLHIV with CD4 counts ≤200 cells/µL was conducted from April 2018 to April 2019 at HIV clinics in eleven tertiary hospitals spread across Nigeria's six geopolitical regions. Prevalence of asymptomatic cryptococcal antigenemia was estimated by facility and geopolitical zone. Logistic regression was conducted to identify risk factors for cryptococcal antigenemia. In total, 1,114 patients with AHD were screened. The overall prevalence of asymptomatic cryptococcal antigenemia was 3.9% with wide variation across facilities (range: 0/75 [0%]- 15/122 [12.3%]) and geopolitical zones (range: 0/75 [0%]-19/279 [6.8%]). Prevalence of antigenemia was highest in the South-West (19/279 [6.8%]) and lowest in the North-East (0/75 [0%]). Prevalence was 5.2% (26/512) and 3.2% (18/561) in patients with CD4<100 and CD4 of 101-200, respectively. Of all patients with antigenemia, 50% were on antiretroviral therapy (ART) at the time of having a positive CrAg test. In adjusted analysis, cryptococcal antigenemia was significantly less in patients on ART and patients who had completed any formal education. The survey showed a high overall burden of cryptococcal antigenemia in Nigeria, with variable prevalence across geopolitical regions. We provided valuable evidence for implementing routine CrAg screening of AHD patients in Nigeria which has commenced in selected centres.

Analyses of Kaposi Sarcoma trends among adults establishing initial outpatient HIV care in Nigeria: 2006-2017.

BACKGROUND: The incidence of Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)-associated Kaposi Sarcoma (KS) in the pre-antiretroviral therapy (ART) population remains high in several countries in sub-Saharan Africa. We examined trends of KS prevalence in adults, establishing initial outpatient HIV care from 2006 to 2017 in Nigeria. METHODS: We analyzed data of 16,431 adults (age ≥ 18 years) enrolled for HIV care from January 1, 2006, to December 31, 2017, in a large clinic in Jos, Nigeria. KS at enrollment was defined as KS recorded in the electronic health record within 30 days of clinic enrollment. Time trends were compared among four periods: 2006-2008, 2009-2011, 2012-2014, and 2015-2017 using logistic regression models. Annual trends were analyzed using join point regression and restricted splines. RESULTS: The study population had a mean age 35.1 (standard deviation, SD 9.5) years, and were 65.7% female (n = 10,788). The mean CD4 cell count was 220 (95% CI 117-223). The overall KS prevalence at entry was 0.59% (95% CI 0.48-0.72). Compared to 2006-2008, KS prevalence was significantly higher in 2009-2011 (adjusted odds ratio 5.07 (95% CI 3.12-8.24), p < 0.001), but remained unchanged in subsequent periods. Male sex and low CD4 T-cell count independently increased odds for KS. CONCLUSIONS: Despite ART expansion, KS at enrollment showed no significant decline. The low CD4 cell count, across all periods, indicates delay in enrollment for HIV care, which increases KS risk. Interventions aimed at early HIV diagnosis and linkage to ART is critical to KS risk reduction in this population.

Assessment of hand hygiene facilities and staff compliance in a large tertiary health care facility in northern Nigeria: a cross sectional study.

BACKGROUND: The burden of healthcare-associated infection (HAI) is 2 to 18 times higher in developing countries. However, few data are available regarding infection prevention and control (IPC) process indicators in these countries. We evaluated hand hygiene (HH) facilities and compliance amongst healthcare workers (HCW) in a 600-bed healthcare facility in Northcentral Nigeria providing tertiary care service for a catchment population of about 20 million. METHODS: An in-house facility assessment tool and the World Health Organization (WHO) direct observation method were used to assess the HH facilities and compliance, respectively. Factors associated with good compliance were determined by multivariate analysis. RESULTS: The facility survey was carried out in all 46 clinical units of the hospital. 72% of the units had no poster or written policy on HH; 87% did not have alcohol-based hand rubs; 98% had at least one handwash sink; 28% had flowing tap water all day while 72% utilized cup and bucket; and 58% had no hand drying facilities. A total of 406 HH opportunities were observed among 175 HCWs. The overall compliance was 31%, ranging from 18% among ward attendants to 82% among medical students. Based on WHO "5 moments" for HH, average compliance was 21% before patient contact, 23% before aseptic procedure, 63% after body fluid exposure risk, 41% after patient contact and 40% after contact with patients' surrounding. Being a medical student was independently associated with high HH compliance, adjusted odds ratio: 13.87 (1.70-112.88). CONCLUSIONS: Availability of HH facilities and HCW compliance in a large tertiary hospital in Nigeria is poor. Our findings confirm that HCWs seem more sensitized to their risk of exposure to potential pathogens than to the prevention of HAI cross-transmission. Inadequate HH facilities probably contributed to the poor compliance. Specific measures such as improved facilities, training and monitoring are needed to improve HH compliance.

HIV-1 Central Nervous System Compartmentalization and Cytokine Interplay in Non-Subtype B HIV-1 Infections in Nigeria and Malawi.

HIV-1 compartmentalization in the central nervous system (CNS) and its contribution to neurological disease have been well documented. Previous studies were conducted among people infected with subtypes B or C where CNS compartmentalization has been observed when comparing viral sequences in the blood to virus in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). However, little is known about CNS compartmentalization in other HIV-1 subtypes. Using a deep sequencing approach with Primer ID, we conducted a cross-sectional study among Nigerian and Malawian HIV-1 cohorts with or without fungal Cryptococcus infection diagnosed as cryptococcal meningitis (CM) to determine the extent of CSF/CNS compartmentalization with CM. Paired plasma and CSF samples from 45 participants were also analyzed for cytokine/chemokine levels. Viral populations comparing virus in the blood and the CSF ranged from compartmentalized to equilibrated, including minor or partial compartmentalization or clonal amplification of a single viral sequence. The frequency of compartmentalized viral populations in the blood and CSF was similar between the CM- and CM+ participants. We confirmed the potential to see compartmentalization with subtype C infection and have also documented CNS compartmentalization of an HIV-1 subtype G infection. Cytokine profiles indicated a proinflammatory environment, especially within the CSF/CNS. However, sCD163 was suppressed in the CSF in the presence of CM, perhaps due to elevated levels of IL-4, which were also a feature of the cytokine profile, showing a distinct cytokine profile with CM.

Current small animal models for LASV hearing loss.

Lassa virus (LASV) is endemic in West Africa, causing an estimated 100000-300000 new infections and up to 5000-10000 deaths yearly. There are no vaccines and therapeutics are extremely limited. Typical case fatality rates are ∼1%, although a recent 2018 Nigerian outbreak featured an unprecedented 25.4% case fatality rate. Survivors of infection suffer a lifetime of sequelae with sudden onset sensorineural hearing loss (SNHL) being the most prevalent. The cause of this hearing loss remains unknown, and there is a critical need for further research on its mechanisms and potential therapeutics. The objective of this review is to outline the only currently available small animal model for LASV-induced hearing loss and to identify potential surrogate models.

Lassa fever-induced sensorineural hearing loss: A neglected public health and social burden.

Although an association between Lassa fever (LF) and sudden-onset sensorineural hearing loss (SNHL) was confirmed clinically in 1990, the prevalence of LF-induced SNHL in endemic countries is still underestimated. LF, a viral hemorrhagic fever disease caused by Lassa virus (LASV), is endemic in West Africa, causing an estimated 500,000 cases and 5,000 deaths per year. Sudden-onset SNHL, one complication of LF, occurs in approximately one-third of survivors and constitutes a neglected public health and social burden. In the endemic countries, where access to hearing aids is limited, SNHL results in a decline of the quality of life for those affected. In addition, hearing loss costs Nigeria approximately 43 million dollars per year. The epidemiology of LF-induced SNHL has not been characterized well. The complication of LF induced by SNHL is also an important consideration for vaccine development and treatments. However, research into the mechanism has been hindered by the lack of autopsy samples and relevant small animal models. Recently, the first animal model that mimics the symptoms of SNHL associated with LF was developed. Preliminary data from the new animal model as well as the clinical case studies support the mechanism of immune-mediated injury that causes SNHL in LF patients. This article summarizes clinical findings of hearing loss in LF patients highlighting the association between LASV infection and SNHL as well as the potential mechanism(s) for LF-induced SNHL. Further research is necessary to identify the mechanism and the epidemiology of LF-induced SNHL.

Lassa Fever 2016 Outbreak in Plateau State, Nigeria-The Changing Epidemiology and Clinical Presentation.

Lassa fever (LF) outbreaks in Nigeria mostly occur in rural areas and during the dry season, peaking between December through February. Fever is a cardinal presenting feature among the myriad manifestations of LF. Thirty four patients with clinical diagnosis of LF were analyzed. However, only 11 (32%) LASV infections were confirmed by RT-PCR. The 2016 LF outbreak showed a preferential urban occurrence and a high case fatality. Fever (≥38°C) was not detected in over a fourth of the patients at the time of examination. Bleeding diathesis was the most common presentation while abdominal pain and headache were present in more than half of the confirmed cases. Changes in the geographical distribution and clinical presentation may have implications for disease control efforts and the risk of transmission, both locally and internationally. In order to guide interventions, public health authorities should be aware that the epidemic patterns may be changing.

Low Zika virus seroprevalence among pregnant women in North Central Nigeria, 2016.

BACKGROUND: Zika virus (ZIKV) has been known for decades in Africa but contemporary data is lacking at large. OBJECTIVES: To describe the seroepidemiology of ZIKV in North Central Nigeria. STUDY DESIGN: We performed a cross-sectional study at six health care facilities in North Central Nigeria from January to December 2016. Detection of ZIKV antibodies was done using an anti-ZIKV recombinant non-structural protein 1 (NS1)-based ELISA. A colorimetric assay to detect ZIKV neutralizing antibodies was used on ELISA reactive and randomly selected ELISA non-reactive samples. ZIKV real-time RT-PCR was done on a subset of samples. RESULTS: A total of 468 individual samples were included with almost 60% from pregnant women. Using NS1-based ELISA, an anti-ZIKV positive rate of 6% for IgM and 4% for IgG was found. Pregnant women showed anti-ZIKV positive rates of 4% for IgM and 3% for IgG. None of the ZIKV antibody positive samples tested ZIKV RT-PCR positive. An association with male sex was found for anti-ZIKV IgG ELISA positivity (prevalence ratio 3.49; 95% confidence interval: 1.48-8.25; p = .004). No association with pregnancy, yellow fever vaccination or malaria was found for anti-ZIKV IgM or IgG positivity. ZIKV neutralizing antibodies were detected in 17/18 (94%) anti-ZIKV NS1 positive/borderline samples and in one sample without detectable ZIKV NS1 antibodies. Partial ZIKV E gene sequence was retrieved in one sample without ZIKV antibodies, which clustered within the West African ZIKV lineage. CONCLUSIONS: Our results show a largely ZIKV immunologically naïve population and reinforce the importance of ZIKV surveillance in Africa.

Hypertension in treated and untreated patients with HIV: a study from 2011 to 2013 at the Jos University Teaching Hospital, Nigeria.

Background: Individuals with HIV, especially those on antiretroviral therapy (ART), may have increased risk of hypertension. We investigated the prevalence of hypertension at enrolment and 12 months after commencing ART in a Nigerian HIV clinic. Methods: Data from patients enrolled for ART from 2011 to 2013 were analysed, including 2310 patients at enrolment and 1524 re-evaluated after 12 months of ART. The presence of hypertension, demographic, clinical and biochemical data were retrieved from standardized databases. Bivariate and logistic regressions were used to identify baseline risk factors for hypertension. Results: Prevalence of hypertension at enrolment was 19.3% (95% CI 17.6-20.9%), and age (p<0.001), male sex (p=0.004) and body mass index (BMI) (p<0.001) were independent risk factors for hypertension. Twelve months after initiating ART, a further 31% (95% CI 17.6-20.9%) had developed hypertension. Total prevalence at that point was 50.2%. Hypertension among those on ART was associated with age (p=0.009) and BMI (p=0.008), but not with sex. There were no independently significant associations between hypertension and CD4+ counts, viral load or type of ART. Conclusions: Hypertension is common in HIV infected individuals attending the HIV clinic. Patients initiating ART have a high risk of developing hypertension in the first year of ART. Since BMI is modifiable, life-style advice aimed at weight reduction is strongly advisable.

Antituberculosis drugs and hepatotoxicity among hospitalized patients in Jos, Nigeria.

BACKGROUND: Tuberculosis (TB) could be fatal if left untreated, however, adverse effects of anti-TB medications (anti-TBs) themselves may limit treatment. We determined the incidence and clinical characteristics of hepatotoxicity in hospitalized patients receiving first-line anti-TB treatment. METHODS: A retrospective cohort study of patients aged ⩾18years seen at the medical wards of the Jos University Teaching Hospital from January 2013 to June 2013 was carried out. Data were retrieved for 110 patients who were prescribed anti-TBs. Their demographic and clinical characteristics were described, and the incidence of symptomatic hepatotoxicity determined. The incidence of hepatotoxicity by strict American Thoracic Society criteria (symptomatic hepatotoxicity plus alanine transaminase in IU/L levels >3×upper limit of normal) was also determined. RESULTS: Twenty patients developed symptomatic hepatotoxicity, giving an incidence of 18.2%. Furthermore, 18 (16.4%) patients had hepatotoxicity according to the American Thoracic Society criteria. Those with symptomatic hepatotoxicity unexpectedly had lower baseline alanine transaminase interquartile range (IQR) (35 [16-63] vs. 67 [4-226]; p=.04) and bilirubin (µmol/L): total IQR (15.3 [10.2-74.8] vs. 20.4 [20.4-20.4]; p=.01) and conjugated IQR (7.6 [5.1-34.8] vs. 10.2 [10.2-10.2]; p=.004). However, there were no significant differences in age, sex, body mass index, and duration of anti-TB treatment, human immunodeficiency virus infection status, antiretroviral therapy status, alcohol consumption, and the presence of hepatitis B surface antigen or hepatitis C virus antibody. CONCLUSION: Hepatotoxicity due to first-line anti-TBs, whether based on clinical features alone or backed by liver chemistry, is common among hospitalized patients in our environment. Studies to determine the predictors of hepatotoxicity to guide clinical interventions aimed at the prevention or timely identification of cases are needed.

Prevalence of and risk factors for pulmonary tuberculosis among newly diagnosed HIV-1 infected Nigerian children.

INTRODUCTION: Studies on the prevalence of and risk factors for tuberculosis (TB) among newly diagnosed human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected children in sub-Saharan Africa are scarce and in Nigeria there is paucity of reported data. We determined the prevalence of and risk factors for pulmonary TB (PTB) in newly diagnosed (treatment-naïve) HIV-1 infected children at the pediatric HIV clinic of the Jos University Teaching Hospital (JUTH) in Nigeria. METHODS: We performed a retrospective analysis of 876 children, aged 2 months - 13 years, diagnosed with HIV-1 infection between July 2005 and December 2012, of which 286 were diagnosed with PTB at presentation after TB screening. The study site was the AIDS Prevention Initiative in Nigeria (APIN)-supported Pediatric HIV clinic at JUTH, Jos. A multivariate forward logistic regression modelling was used to identify risk factors for PTB-HIV co-infection. RESULTS: The prevalence of PTB-HIV co-infection was 32% (286/876). Severe immunosuppression (SI) and World Health Organization (WHO) HIV clinical stage 3/4 were identified as independent risk factors for PTB-HIV co-infection in HIV infected children. The odds of PTB-HIV co-infection was increased two-fold in HIV-infected children with WHO clinical stage 3/4 compared to those with stage 1/2 (adjusted odds ratio (AOR) 1.76 [1.31-2.37], p<0.001) and 1.5-fold in children with SI compared to those without SI (AOR 1.52 [1.12-2.06], p=0.007). CONCLUSION: In our setting, the burden of PTB was high among newly diagnosed HIV-infected children, and late WHO HIV clinical stage and severe immunosuppression were associated with PTB-HIV co-infection. Therefore there is a clear need to improve strategies for early diagnosis of both HIV and PTB to optimize clinical outcomes.