Development and effectiveness of a BOPPPS teaching model-based workshop for community pharmacists training.

BACKGROUND/AIM: With the pharmaceutical innovation and clinical knowledge updating, the continuing education and on-the-job training are extremely important for improving community pharmacists' professional competence. Previous training often adopted traditional lecture-based teaching, and the efficacy was limited. The aim of this study is to develop a new strategy for community pharmacist training. METHODS: Based on the BOPPPS (Bridge-in, Objective, Pre-assessment, Participatory Learning, Post-assessment and Summary) teaching model and workshop method, a continuing on-the-job training program was constructed. Participates were randomly and evenly divided into two groups by random number table method. Twenty-four community pharmacists in total completed all training contents and evaluation components in this study. Twelve pharmacists in experimental group were trained via this new BOPPPS-based workshop, while others still adopted traditional didactic lecture-based approaches. RESULTS: After training, quantitative examination combined with clinical pharmacy practice tests were carried out to evaluate the effectiveness and outcomes of two training groups. For written exam, the total scores from the BOPPPS-based workshop group (82.67 ± 4.70) was higher than that of traditional lectured-base group (73.75 ± 6.15) (P < 0.001). Encouragingly, compared with the results of practical ability assessment from traditional training group (71.75 ± 4.75), the pharmacists receiving BOPPPS-based workshop training presented more excellent performance (78.25 ± 5.03), which displayed statistically significant differences (P < 0.01). In addition, an anonymous questionnaire was used to survey trainees' feelings after completing this continuing education program. The results revealed that the BOPPPS-based workshop can bring a better learning experience than traditional lecture-based training, and the percentages of positive response to each item were more than 91.7%. CONCLUSIONS: Through multi-dimensional evaluation, it was suggested that our BOPPPS-based workshop achieved desired training effects. Moreover, our research also demonstrated that this strategy had advantages of stimulating inspiration, autonomous learning, team-work spirit and pharmacy practice improvement. It may provide a reference of innovative training method for community pharmacists.

Association between systemic immune-inflammation index and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a population-based study.

BACKGROUND: The Systemic Immune-Inflammation Index (SII) is a quantitative measurement of the systemic immune-inflammatory response in the human body. The SII has been shown to have prognostic value in various clinical settings, including critical illness, sepsis, and cancer. Its role in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) remains unclear and requires further investigation. METHODS: We analyzed demographic data from 16,636 participants in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Logistic regression analysis was performed to assess the correlation between COPD, lung function, chronic respiratory symptoms and SII. We used Cox proportional hazards (PH) model to analyze the relationship between SII and mortality in COPD patients and healthy individuals. We used propensity score matching (PSM) method to match the COPD population with similar baseline levels with the normal population to further analyze the correlation between SII and COPD. RESULTS: We recruited 16,636 participants, ages 40 and above, for the study. A multivariable logistic regression analysis revealed that a higher SII level was independently associated with an elevated likelihood of COPD (Odds Ratio (OR) = 1.449; 95% Confidence Interval (CI): 1.252-1.676, P < 0.0001) after controlling for all other factors. Results of subgroup analysis showed a significant positive correlation between SII and COPD in different age groups, gender, Body Mass Index, smoking status, and those with a history of hypertension. The SII index had positive correlation with COPD after PSM (OR = 1.673; 95%CI: 1.443-1.938). After full adjustment, an increase in the SII is associated with a higher all-cause mortality rate. The hazard ratio (HR) with a 95% CI in the general population, COPD patients, and healthy individuals are 1.161 (1.088, 1.239), 1.282 (1.060, 1.550), and 1.129 (1.055, 1.207), respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Higher SII levels are linked to higher prevalence of COPD. COPD patients with a higher SII levels have a higher risk of all-cause mortality. Additional large-scale, long-term studies are necessary to confirm these results.

The Kv1.3 ion channel acts as a host factor restricting viral entry.

Virus entry into cells is the initial stage of infection and involves multiple steps, and interfering viral entry represents potential antiviral approaches. Ion channels are pore-forming membrane proteins controlling cellular ion homeostasis and regulating many physiological processes, but their roles during viral infection have rarely been explored. Here, the functional Kv1.3 ion channel was found to be expressed in human hepatic cells and tissues. The Kv1.3 was then revealed to restrict HCV entry via inhibiting endosome acidification-mediated viral membrane fusion. The Kv1.3 was also demonstrated to inhibit DENV and ZIKV with an endosome acidification-dependent entry, but have no effect on SeV with a neutral pH penetration. A Kv1.3 antagonist PAP-1 treatment accelerated animal death in ZIKV-infected Ifnar1-/- mice. Moreover, Kv1.3-deletion was found to promote weight loss and reduce survival rate in ZIKV-infected Kv1.3-/- mice. Altogether, the Kv1.3 ion channel behaves as a host factor restricting viral entry. These findings broaden understanding about ion channel biology.

Tick peptides evoke itch by activating MrgprC11/MRGPRX1 to sensitize TRPV1 in pruriceptors.

BACKGROUND: Tick bites severely threaten human health because they allow the transmission of many deadly pathogens, including viruses, bacteria, protozoa, and helminths. Pruritus is a leading symptom of tick bites, but its molecular and neural bases remain elusive. OBJECTIVES: This study sought to discover potent drugs and targets for the specific prevention and treatment of tick bite-induced pruritus and arthropod-related itch. METHODS: We used live-cell calcium imaging, patch-clamp recordings, and genetic ablation and evaluated mouse behavior to investigate the molecular and neural bases of tick bite-induced pruritus. RESULTS: We found that 2 tick salivary peptides, IP defensin 1 (IPDef1) and IR defensin 2 (IRDef2), induced itch in mice. IPDef1 was further revealed to have a stronger pruritogenic potential than IRDef2 and to induce pruritus in a histamine-independent manner. IPDef1 evoked itch by activating mouse MrgprC11 and human MRGPRX1 on dorsal root ganglion neurons. IPDef1-activated MrgprC11/X1 signaling sensitized downstream ion channel TRPV1 on dorsal root ganglion neurons. Moreover, IPDef1 also activated mouse MrgprB2 and its ortholog human MRGPRX2 selectively expressed on mast cells, inducing the release of inflammatory cytokines and driving acute inflammation in mice, although mast cell activation did not contribute to oxidated IPDef1-induced itch. CONCLUSIONS: Our study identifies tick salivary peptides as a new class of pruritogens that initiate itch through MrgprC11/X1-TRPV1 signaling in pruritoceptors. Our work will provide potential drug targets for the prevention and treatment of pruritus induced by the bites or stings of tick and maybe other arthropods.

Purlisin, a toxin-like defensin derived from clinical pathogenic fungus Purpureocillium lilacinum with both antimicrobial and potassium channel inhibitory activities.

Clinical fungal infections always cause a negative impact on human health. Moreover, during the interaction of pathogenic fungi with the environment and host, many biologically active substances are produced. Here, we report a new toxin-like defensin of purlisin derived from a clinical pathogenic isolate of Purpureocillium lilacinum. The analysis of its genomic and mRNA sequences revealed an open reading frame of 444 bp without introns. The deduced precursor peptide was composed of 147 amino acids, and the mature peptide were identified at protein level by LC-ESI-Q-TOF-MS/MS. After posttranslational processing, the precursor peptide of purlisin was split into two independent peptides. The two mature defensins, purlisin-NT and purlisin-CT, are consisting of 36 and 38 amino acid residues, which can form three and four intramolecular disulfide bonds, respectively. The results of circular dichroism and homology modeling revealed that they adopted a representative cysteine-stabilized α-helical and ß-sheet motif. The purlisin-NT showed a dose-dependent selective inhibition of immune-related hKv1.3 target channel with IC50 value of 0.2 ± 0.04 µM but no obvious antibacterial activity, while the purlisin-CT displayed antimicrobial activities against gram-positive bacteria as well as clinical isolates of MRSA and low affinities for potassium channels. Our findings suggest that purlisin-NT with immunosuppressive effects and purlisin-CT possessing antibacterial activities are adapted to the survival and pathogenicity of clinical P lilacinumis. Moreover, they can also be used as templates for the design of novel antibacterial peptide and immunosuppressive agents.

Neutrophil-Lymphocyte Ratio in Predicting Infective Endocarditis: A Case-Control Retrospective Study.

BACKGROUND: Infective endocarditis (IE) is a complex infectious disease with high morbidity and mortality. The inflammation mechanism of IE is a complex network including interactions of inflammatory cytokines and other components of host response. As an important inflammation marker, the prediction ability of neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio (NLR) in IE deserves further investigation. METHODS: NLR values were measured and compared between IE patients and healthy controls, good and bad clinical outcome groups. The receiver operating characteristic curves (ROCs) of NLR and cut-off values were measured in IE patients, pathogen-subgroups, and different clinical outcome groups. RESULTS: There were 678 IE patients and 2520 healthy controls enrolled in our study. The number of good and bad clinical outcome patients was 537 and 141, respectively. The value of NLR was significantly higher in IE patients than healthy controls (6.29 ± 9.36 vs. 1.87 ± 0.34, p < 0.001), and the area under the ROC (AUC) was 0.817 (95% CI (0.794, 0.839), p < 0.001). The critical value of NLR for diagnosis of IE was 2.68, with a sensitivity of 69%, and a specificity of 88%. The value of NLR was significantly higher in bad clinical outcome patients than in good clinical outcome patients (5.8 ± 6.02 vs. 3.62 ± 2.61, p < 0.001). The critical value of NLR to predict the outcome of IE was 5.557, with a sensitivity of 39.0% and a specificity of 85.3%. CONCLUSIONS: NLR is a predictive marker for IE patients, especially in Gram-negative bacteria and Gram-positive bacteria-infected IE patients. NLR also can predict the outcome of IE. Early detecting NLR upon admission may assist in early diagnosis and risk stratification of patients with IE.

Promoting effect of hepatitis B virus on the expressoin of phospholipase A2 group IIA.

BACKGROUND: Hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection causes acute and chronic liver disease, ultimately leading to the development of liver cirrhosis (LC) and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Phospholipase A2 group IIA (PLA2G2A) plays important roles in the development and progression of many tumors. Thus far, there have been no reports on the association between HBV and PLA2G2A. The present study investigated the effect of HBV infection on PLA2G2A expression and its application in the diagnosis of HBV-related diseases. METHODS: Serum levels of PLA2G2A in 308 HBV-infected patients and 185 healthy controls were measured using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The difference in serum levels of PLA2G2A was analyzed among chronic hepatitis B (CHB), LC, and HCC patients. PLA2G2A mRNA and protein expression in HepG2 and HepG2.2.15 cells carrying the integrated HBV genome were measured using reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and western blot assays. The HBV infectious clone pHBV1.3, the control plasmid pBlue-ks and PLA2G2A gene promoter were transfected into HepG2 and HepG2.2.15 cells. After transfection, the luciferase activity was measured in the cells. PLA2G2A mRNA and protein expression levels were examined using RT-PCR and western blot assays. RESULTS: The serum levels of PLA2G2A were 258.3 ± 20.3ng/dl in the healthy controls and 329.0 ± 22.5ng/dl, 385.4 ± 29.3ng/dl and 459.2 ± 38.6ng/dl in the CHB, LC, and HCC patients, respectively. Statistical analyses revealed significantly higher serum levels of PLA2G2A in CHB, LC, and HCC patients than in the healthy controls (P < 0.05), and PLA2G2A levels were elevated in the order of HCC > LC > CHB group. High serum PLA2G2A levels in HCC patients were associated with a lower prevalence of lymph node metastasis and a lower TNM stage. HepG2.2.15 cells carrying the HBV genome expressed higher levels of PLA2G2A mRNA and protein than the HepG2 cells. In addition, HBV triggered PLA2G2A promoter activity and enhanced PLA2G2A mRNA and protein expression compared to the empty vector pBlue-ks. CONCLUSION: HBV can upregulate the expression of PLA2G2A, and serum levels of PLA2G2A are associated with the progression of HBV-related diseases.

Injectable cold atmospheric plasma-activated immunotherapeutic hydrogel for enhanced cancer treatment.

Despite the promise of immune checkpoint blockade (ICB) for cancer treatment, challenges associated with this therapy still exist, including low response rates and severe side effects in patients. Here, we report a hydrogel-mediated combination therapy for enhanced ICB therapy. Specifically, cold atmospheric plasma (CAP), an ionized gas consisting of therapeutically effective reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS), can effectively induce cancer immunogenic cell death, releasing tumor-associated antigens in situ and initiating anti-tumor immune responses, which, therefore, can synergistically augment the efficacy of immune checkpoint inhibitors. To minimize the systemic toxicity of immune checkpoint inhibitors and improve the tissue penetration of CAP, an injectable Pluronic hydrogel was employed as a delivery method. Our results show that major long-lived ROS and RNS in CAP can be effectively persevered in Pluronic hydrogel and remain efficacious in inducing cancer immunogenic cell death after intratumoral injection. Our findings suggest that local hydrogel-mediated combination of CAP and ICB treatment can evoke both strong innate and adaptive, local and systemic anti-tumor immune responses, thereby inhibiting both tumor growth and potential metastatic spread.

Senotherapeutics: An emerging approach to the treatment of viral infectious diseases in the elderly.

In the context of the global COVID-19 pandemic, the phenomenon that the elderly have higher morbidity and mortality is of great concern. Existing evidence suggests that senescence and viral infection interact with each other. Viral infection can lead to the aggravation of senescence through multiple pathways, while virus-induced senescence combined with existing senescence in the elderly aggravates the severity of viral infections and promotes excessive age-related inflammation and multiple organ damage or dysfunction, ultimately resulting in higher mortality. The underlying mechanisms may involve mitochondrial dysfunction, abnormal activation of the cGAS-STING pathway and NLRP3 inflammasome, the role of pre-activated macrophages and over-recruited immune cells, and accumulation of immune cells with trained immunity. Thus, senescence-targeted drugs were shown to have positive effects on the treatment of viral infectious diseases in the elderly, which has received great attention and extensive research. Therefore, this review focused on the relationship between senescence and viral infection, as well as the significance of senotherapeutics for the treatment of viral infectious diseases.

Development and evaluation of an online training program based on the O-AMAS teaching model for community pharmacists in the post-COVID-19 era.

Background: Formerly, the community pharmacists' work was mainly focused on drug supply. However, during the COVID-19 epidemic outbreak, community pharmacists in Wuhan played an important role in control and prevention of SARS-CoV-2 and in providing pharmaceutical care. Due to a lack of adequate knowledge and skills, many community pharmacists were not able to cope with healthcare work timely and efficiently. To improve community pharmacists' specialized knowledge and enhance their professional competence through systemic training in the post-COVID-19 era. Methods: Based on the O-AMAS (Objective, Activation, Multi-learning, Assessment and Summary) teaching model and flipped classroom, an online continuing training program containing four sections was developed. It was a semi-experimental study with no control group. Quantitative tests before and after training as well as questionnaire were used to evaluate the outcome of this training program for community pharmacists. Results: A total of twenty-six community pharmacists were invited to participate in continuing education, and twenty-five trainees finished this training program with a completion rate of 96.2 %. Quantitative tests before and after training and anonymous questionnaires were carried out to comprehensively evaluate the outcomes of this training program. Compared with the test scores before training (61.6 ± 6.6), the score after training was statistically higher, reaching 80.9 ± 7.5 (P < 0.001). Twenty-three questionnaires were received (returns ratio, 92.0%). Notably, most of the pharmacists were satisfied with the training program. The percentage of positive responses for each item in this anonymous questionnaire was more than 85 %. Conclusion: It was suggested that the O-AMAS model and the flipped classroom-based continuing educational program achieved the expected training effects. It is a promising on-the-job training approach for pharmacy continuing education. Moreover, our study also demonstrated that online learning had advantages of no geographic constraints, flexible learning beyond time and easy interaction, over traditional face-to-face training style, especially in the post-pandemic era.

Role of defensins in diabetic wound healing.

The adverse consequences resulting from diabetes are often presented as severe complications. Diabetic wounds are one of the most commonly occurring complications in diabetes, and the control and treatment of this is costly. Due to a series of pathophysiological mechanisms, diabetic wounds remain in the inflammatory phase for a prolonged period of time, and face difficulty in entering the proliferative phase, thus leading to chronic non-healing wounds. The current consensus on the treatment of diabetic wounds is through multidisciplinary comprehensive management, however, standard wound treatment methods are still limited and therefore, more effective methods are required. In recent years, defensins have been found to play diverse roles in a variety of diseases; however, the molecular mechanisms underlying these activities are still largely unknown. Defensins can be constitutively or inductively produced in the skin, therefore, their local distribution is affected by the microenvironment of these diabetic wounds. Current evidence suggests that defensins are involved in the diabetic wound pathogenesis, and can potentially promote the early completion of each stage, thus making research on defensins a promising area for developing novel treatments for diabetic wounds. In this review, we describe the complex function of human defensins in the development of diabetic wounds, and suggest potential thera-peutic benefits.

Successful en bloc resection of large esophageal hemangioma by endoscopic submucosal dissection: A case report.

RATIONALE: With the development of endoscopic techniques, endoscopic therapy began to play an important role in the management of esophageal hemangiomas. PATIENTS CONCERNS: A large esophageal submucosal tumor (2.5 cm), which was suspected to be an esophageal hemangioma, was diagnosed in a 50-year-old woman. DIAGNOSIS: Esophageal hemangioma INTERVENTIONS:: Endoscopic submucosal dissection was performed for tumor removal. OUTCOMES: Histopathological results revealed hemangioma. No complication or recurrence was observed in the 17-month follow-up period. LESSONS: Our successful experience showed that endoscopic submucosal dissection is an effective and a safe approach to treat large esophageal hemangiomas (2.5 cm).

Wuchang Fangcang Shelter Hospital: Practices, Experiences, and Lessons Learned in Controlling COVID-19.

In early January 2020, the outbreak of the new corona virus pneumonia (Corona Virus Disease 2019, COVID-19) occurred. Wuhan, the capital city of Hubei province, became the epicenter of the disease in China. The rapid growth of patients had exceeded the maximum affordability of local medical resources. A large comprehensive gymnasium was converted into Wuchang Fangcang Shelter Hospital in order to provide adequate medical beds and appropriate care for the confirmed patients with mild to moderate symptoms. For these hospitalized patients with COVID-19, medication became the mainstay of therapy. From 5th February to 10th March, a team of pharmacists successfully completed drug supplies and pharmaceutical services for 1124 patients and approximately 800 medical staff, and, while doing so, received zero complaint, and experienced zero disputes and zero pharmacist infection. This paper summarizes the development and construction of the pharmacy, human resource allocation of pharmacists, pharmacy administration, and pharmaceutical services. It aims to review a 34-day period of pharmaceutical practice and serve as a reference for other health professionals working on COVID-19 prevention and treatment in other regions.

ImKTx96, a peptide blocker of the Kv1.2 ion channel from the venom of the scorpion Isometrus maculates.

Scorpion venom contains diverse bioactive peptides that can recognize and interact with membrane proteins such as ion channels. These natural toxins are believed to be useful tools for exploring the structure and function of ion channels. In this study, we characterized a K+-channel toxin gene, ImKTx96, from the venom gland cDNA library of the scorpion Isometrus maculates. The peptide deduced from the ImKTx96 precursor nucleotide sequence contains a signal peptide of 27 amino acid residues and a mature peptide of 29 residues with three disulfide bridges. Multiple sequence alignment indicated that ImKTx96 is similar with the scorpion toxins that typically target K+-channels. The recombined ImKTx96 peptide (rImKTx96) was expressed in the Escherichia coli system, and purified by GST-affinity chromatography and RP-HPLC. Results from whole-cell patch-clamp experiments revealed that rImKTx96 can inhibit the current of the Kv1.2 ion channel expressed in HEK293 cells. The 3D structure of ImKTx96 was constructed by molecular modeling, and the complex formed by ImKTx96 interacting with the Kv1.2 ion channel was obtained by molecular docking. Based on its structural features and pharmacological functions, ImKTx96 was identified as one member of K+-channel scorpion toxin α-KTx10 group and may be useful as a molecular probe for investigating the structure and function of the Kv1.2 ion channel.

Triintsin, a human pathogenic fungus-derived defensin with broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity.

Since there is a symbiotic and competitive relationship between microorganisms in the same ecological niche, fungal defensins have been found to be important resources for antimicrobial peptides. Here, a fungal defensin, triintsin, was characterized in a clinical isolate of Trichophyton interdigitale from a patient with onychomycosis. The comparison of its genomic and mRNA sequences showed the gene organization and structure of three coding exons separated by two introns. The precursor peptide of triintsin contained 85 amino acid residues, which were composed of three parts including an N-terminal signal domain of 21 residues, a pro-peptide of 47 residues that ended at lysine-arginine and a mature peptide of 38 residues at the C-terminus. The 3D-structure established by homology modeling revealed that triintsin presented a representative typical cysteine-stabilized α-helical and ß-sheet fold. The reductive linear peptide of triintsin was obtained by chemical synthesis. After cyclization to form three pairs of disulfide bonds, the oxidative-type peptide displayed broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity against both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria but also showed anti-fungal activity. Moreover, triintsin can effectively inhibit the growth of clinical strains. Altogether, the peptide is a human pathogenic fungus-derived defensin with broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity.

Therapeutic Potential of a Scorpion Venom-Derived Antimicrobial Peptide and Its Homologs Against Antibiotic-Resistant Gram-Positive Bacteria.

The alarming rise in the prevalence of antibiotic resistance among pathogenic bacteria poses a unique challenge for the development of effective therapeutic agents. Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) have attracted a great deal of attention as a possible solution to the increasing problem of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Marcin-18 was identified from the scorpion Mesobuthus martensii at both DNA and protein levels. The genomic sequence revealed that the marcin-18 coding gene contains a phase-I intron with a GT-AG splice junction located in the DNA region encoding the N-terminal part of signal peptide. The peptide marcin-18 was also isolated from scorpion venom. A protein sequence homology search revealed that marcin-18 shares extremely high sequence identity to the AMPs meucin-18 and megicin-18. In vitro, chemically synthetic marcin-18 and its homologs (meucin-18 and megicin-18) showed highly potent inhibitory activity against Gram-positive bacteria, including some clinical antibiotic-resistant strains. Importantly, in a mouse acute peritonitis model, these peptides significantly decreased the bacterial load in ascites and rescued nearly all mice heavily infected with clinical methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus from lethal bacteremia. Peptides exerted antimicrobial activity via a bactericidal mechanism and killed bacteria through membrane disruption. Taken together, marcin-18 and its homologs have potential for development as therapeutic agents for treating antibiotic-resistant, Gram-positive bacterial infections.

Oligopeptides as full-length New Delhi metallo-ß-lactamase-1 (NDM-1) inhibitors.

'Superbug' bacteria producing NDM-1 enzyme causing wide public concern were first detected in a patient who visited India in 2008. It's an effective approach to combining ß-lactam antibiotics with NDM-1 inhibitor for treating NDM-1 producing strain infection. In our research, we designed ten oligopeptides, tested IC50 values against NDM-1 enzyme, determined the MIC values of synergistic antibacterial effect and explored the binding model. We found that the oligopeptides 2 (Cys-Phe) and 5 (Cys-Asp) respectively presented IC50 values of 113 µM and 68 µM and also displayed favorable synergistic effects of the inhibitors in combination with ertapenem against genetic engineering-host E. coli BL21 (DE3)/pET30a-NDM-1 and a clinical isolate of P. aeruginosa with blaNDM-1. Flexible docking and partial charge study suggested the interaction between oligopeptide and NDM-1. Three types of action effects, hydrogen bond, electrostatic effect and π-π interaction, contributed to the inhibitory activities.

Treating autoimmune disorders with venom-derived peptides.

INTRODUCTION: The effective treatment of autoimmune diseases remains a challenge. Voltage-gated potassium Kv1.3 channels, which are expressed in lymphocytes, are a new therapeutic target for treating autoimmune disease. Consequently, Kv1.3 channel-inhibiting venom-derived peptides are a prospective resource for new drug discovery and clinical application. Area covered: Preclinical and clinical studies have produced a wealth of information on Kv1.3 channel-inhibiting venom-derived peptides, especially from venomous scorpions and sea anemones. This review highlights the advances in screening and design of these peptides with diverse structures and potencies. It focuses on representative strategies for improving peptide selectivity and discusses the preclinical research on those venom-derived peptides as well as their clinical developmental status. Expert opinion: Encouraging results indicate that peptides isolated from the venom of venomous animals are a large resource for discovering immunomodulators that act on Kv1.3 channels. Since the structural diversity of venom-derived peptides determines the variety of their pharmacological activities, the design and optimization of venom-peptides for improved Kv1.3 channel-specificity has been advanced through some representative strategies, such as peptide chemical modification, amino acid residue truncation and binding interface modulation. These advances should further accelerate research, development and the future clinical application of venom-derived peptides selectively targeting Kv1.3 channels.

Molecular characterization and expression analysis of CSαß defensin genes from the scorpion Mesobuthus martensii.

Defensins are important components of innate host defence system against bacteria, fungi, parasites and viruses. Here, we predicted six potential defensin genes from the genome of the scorpion Mesobuthus martensii and then validated four genes from them via the combination of PCR and genomic sequence analysis. These four scorpion defensin genes share the same gene organization and structure of two exons and one phase-I intron with the GT-AG rule. Conserved motif and phylogenetic analysis showed that they belonged to the members of the invertebrate cysteine-stabilized α-helix/ß-sheet motif defensin (CSαß) defensin family. All these four CSαß defensin genes have the expression feature of constitutive transcription (CON) by the whole scorpion infection model, promoter sequence analysis and dual luciferase assays. Further evolution and comparison analysis found that the invertebrate CSαß defensin genes from most of arachnids and mollusks appear to share the expression pattern of CON, but those from insects and lower invertebrates (nematodes, annelids, cnidarians and sponges) seem to have identical inducible transcription (IND) after being challenged by microorganisms. Together, we identified four scorpion CSαß defensin genes with the expression feature of CON, and characterized the diversified expression patterns of the invertebrate CSαß defensin genes, which will shed insights into the evolution of the invertebrate CSαß defensin genes and their expression patterns.