Androgen and glucocorticoid profiles throughout extended uniparental paternal care in the eastern hellbender salamander (Cryptobranchus a. alleganiensis).

The behavioral endocrinology associated with reproduction and uniparental male care has been studied in teleosts, but little is known about hormonal correlates of uniparental male care in other ectotherms. To address this gap, we are the first to document the seasonal steroid endocrinology of uniparental male hellbender salamanders during the transition from pre-breeding to nest initiation, and through the subsequent eight months of paternal care. In doing so, we investigated the correlates of nest fate and clutch size, exploring hellbenders' alignment with several endocrinological patterns observed in uniparental male fish. Understanding the endocrinology of hellbender paternal care is also vital from a conservation perspective because high rates of nest failure were recently identified as a factor causing population declines in this imperiled species. We corroborated previous findings demonstrating testosterone and dihydrotestosterone (DHT) to be the primary androgens in hellbender reproduction, and that cortisol circulates as the most abundant glucocorticoid. However, we were unable to identify a prolactin or a "prolactin-like" peptide in circulation prior to or during parental care. We observed âˆ¼ 80 % declines in both primary androgens during the transition from pre-breeding to nest initiation, and again as paternal care progressed past its first month. In the days immediately following nest initiation, testosterone and DHT trended higher in successful individuals, but did not differ with males' clutch size. We did not observe meaningful seasonality in baseline glucocorticoids associated with breeding or nesting. In contrast, stress-induced glucocorticoids were highest at pre-breeding and through the first two months of care, before declining during the latter-most periods of care as larvae approach emergence from the nest. Neither baseline nor stress-induced glucocorticoids varied significantly with either nest fate or clutch size. Both stress-induced cortisol and corticosterone were positively correlated with total length, a proxy for age in adult hellbenders. This is consistent with age-related patterns in some vertebrates, but the first such pattern observed in a wild amphibian population. Generally, we found that nesting hellbenders adhere to some but not all of the endocrinological patterns observed in uniparental male teleosts prior to and during parental care.

Mutations that alter Arabidopsis flavonoid metabolism affect the circadian clock.

Flavonoids are a well-known class of specialized metabolites that play key roles in plant development, reproduction, and survival. Flavonoids are also of considerable interest from the perspective of human health, as both phytonutrients and pharmaceuticals. RNA sequencing analysis of an Arabidopsis null allele for chalcone synthase (CHS), which catalyzes the first step in flavonoid metabolism, has uncovered evidence that these compounds influence the expression of genes associated with the plant circadian clock. Analysis of promoter-luciferase constructs further showed that the transcriptional activity of CCA1 and TOC1, two key clock genes, is altered in CHS-deficient seedlings across the day/night cycle. Similar findings for a mutant line lacking flavonoid 3'-hydroxylase (F3'H) activity, and thus able to synthesize mono- but not dihydroxylated B-ring flavonoids, suggests that the latter are at least partially responsible; this was further supported by the ability of quercetin to enhance CCA1 promoter activity in wild-type and CHS-deficient seedlings. The effects of flavonoids on circadian function were also reflected in photosynthetic activity, with chlorophyll cycling abolished in CHS- and F3'H-deficient plants. Remarkably, the same phenotype was exhibited by plants with artificially high flavonoid levels, indicating that neither the antioxidant potential nor the light-screening properties of flavonoids contribute to optimal clock function, as has recently also been demonstrated in animal systems. Collectively, the current experiments point to a previously unknown connection between flavonoids and circadian cycling in plants and open the way to better understanding of the molecular basis of flavonoid action.

Catechol-containing compounds are a broad class of protein aggregation inhibitors: Redox state is a key determinant of the inhibitory activities.

A range of neurodegenerative and related aging diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease and type 2 diabetes, are linked to toxic protein aggregation. Yet the mechanisms of protein aggregation inhibition by small molecule inhibitors remain poorly understood, in part because most protein targets of aggregation assembly are partially unfolded or intrinsically disordered, which hinders detailed structural characterization of protein-inhibitor complexes and structural-based inhibitor design. Herein we employed a parallel small molecule library-screening approach to identify inhibitors against three prototype amyloidogenic proteins in neurodegeneration and related proteinopathies: amylin, Aß and tau. One remarkable class of inhibitors identified from these screens against different amyloidogenic proteins was catechol-containing compounds and redox-related quinones/anthraquinones. Secondary assays validated most of the identified inhibitors. In vivo efficacy evaluation of a selected catechol-containing compound, rosmarinic acid, demonstrated its strong mitigating effects of amylin amyloid deposition and related diabetic pathology in transgenic HIP rats. Further systematic investigation of selected class of inhibitors under aerobic and anaerobic conditions revealed that the redox state of the broad class of catechol-containing compounds is a key determinant of the amyloid inhibitor activities. The molecular insights we gained not only explain why a large number of catechol-containing polyphenolic natural compounds, often enriched in healthy diet, have anti-neurodegeneration and anti-aging activities, but also could guide the rational design of therapeutic or nutraceutical strategies to target a broad range of neurodegenerative and related aging diseases.

McpT, a Broad-Range Carboxylate Chemoreceptor in Sinorhizobium meliloti.

Chemoreceptors enable the legume symbiont Sinorhizobium meliloti to detect and respond to specific chemicals released from their host plant alfalfa, which allows the establishment of a nitrogen-fixing symbiosis. The periplasmic region (PR) of transmembrane chemoreceptors act as the sensory input module for chemotaxis systems via binding of specific ligands, either directly or indirectly. S. meliloti has six transmembrane and two cytosolic chemoreceptors. However, the function of only three of the transmembrane receptors have been characterized so far, with McpU, McpV, and McpX serving as general amino acid, short-chain carboxylate, and quaternary ammonium compound sensors, respectively. In the present study, we analyzed the S. meliloti chemoreceptor McpT. High-throughput differential scanning fluorimetry assays, using Biolog phenotype microarray plates, identified 15 potential ligands for McpTPR, with the majority classified as mono-, di-, and tricarboxylates. S. meliloti exhibited positive chemotaxis toward seven selected carboxylates, namely, α-ketobutyrate, citrate, glyoxylate, malate, malonate, oxalate, and succinate. These carboxylates were detected in seed exudates of the alfalfa host. Deletion of mcpT resulted in a significant decrease of chemotaxis to all carboxylates except for citrate. Isothermal titration calorimetry revealed that McpTPR bound preferentially to the monocarboxylate glyoxylate and with lower affinity to the dicarboxylates malate, malonate, and oxalate. However, no direct binding was detected for the remaining three carboxylates that elicited an McpT-dependent chemotaxis response. Taken together, these results demonstrate that McpT is a broad-range carboxylate chemoreceptor that mediates chemotactic response via direct ligand binding and an indirect mechanism that needs to be identified. IMPORTANCE Nitrate pollution is one of the most widespread and challenging environmental problems that is mainly caused by the agricultural overapplication of nitrogen fertilizers. Biological nitrogen fixation by the endosymbiont Sinorhizobium meliloti enhances the growth of its host Medicago sativa (alfalfa), which also efficiently supplies the soil with nitrogen. Establishment of the S. meliloti-alfalfa symbiosis relies on the early exchange and recognition of chemical signals. The present study contributes to the disclosure of this complex molecular dialogue by investigating the underlying mechanisms of carboxylate sensing in S. meliloti. Understanding individual steps that govern the S. meliloti-alfalfa molecular cross talk helps in the development of efficient, commercial bacterial inoculants that promote the growth of alfalfa, which is the most cultivated forage legume in the world, and improves soil fertility.

Sinorhizobium meliloti Chemoreceptor McpV Senses Short-Chain Carboxylates via Direct Binding.

Sinorhizobium meliloti is a soil-dwelling endosymbiont of alfalfa that has eight chemoreceptors to sense environmental stimuli during its free-living state. The functions of two receptors have been characterized, with McpU and McpX serving as general amino acid and quaternary ammonium compound sensors, respectively. Both receptors use a dual Cache (calcium channels and chemotaxis receptors) domain for ligand binding. We identified that the ligand-binding periplasmic region (PR) of McpV contains a single Cache domain. Homology modeling revealed that McpVPR is structurally similar to a sensor domain of a chemoreceptor with unknown function from Anaeromyxobacter dehalogenans, which crystallized with acetate in its binding pocket. We therefore assayed McpV for carboxylate binding and S. meliloti for carboxylate sensing. Differential scanning fluorimetry identified 10 potential ligands for McpVPR Nine of these are monocarboxylates with chain lengths between two and four carbons. We selected seven compounds for capillary assay analysis, which established positive chemotaxis of the S. meliloti wild type, with concentrations of peak attraction at 1 mM for acetate, propionate, pyruvate, and glycolate, and at 100 mM for formate and acetoacetate. Deletion of mcpV or mutation of residues essential for ligand coordination abolished positive chemotaxis to carboxylates. Using microcalorimetry, we determined that dissociation constants of the seven ligands with McpVPR were in the micromolar range. An McpVPR variant with a mutation in the ligand coordination site displayed no binding to isobutyrate or propionate. Of all the carboxylates tested as attractants, only glycolate was detected in alfalfa seed exudates. This work examines the relevance of carboxylates and their sensor to the rhizobium-legume interaction.IMPORTANCE Legumes share a unique association with certain soil-dwelling bacteria known broadly as rhizobia. Through concerted interorganismal communication, a legume allows intracellular infection by its cognate rhizobial species. The plant then forms an organ, the root nodule, dedicated to housing and supplying fixed carbon and nutrients to the bacteria. In return, the engulfed rhizobia, differentiated into bacteroids, fix atmospheric N2 into ammonium for the plant host. This interplay is of great benefit to the cultivation of legumes, such as alfalfa and soybeans, and is initiated by chemotaxis to the host plant. This study on carboxylate chemotaxis contributes to the understanding of rhizobial survival and competition in the rhizosphere and aids the development of commercial inoculants.

Tobacco nicotine uptake permease (NUP1) affects alkaloid metabolism.

An effective plant alkaloid chemical defense requires a variety of transport processes, but few alkaloid transporters have been characterized at the molecular level. Previously, a gene fragment encoding a putative plasma membrane proton symporter was isolated, because it was coordinately regulated with several nicotine biosynthetic genes. Here, we show that this gene fragment corresponds to a Nicotiana tabacum gene encoding a nicotine uptake permease (NUP1). NUP1 belongs to a plant-specific class of purine uptake permease-like transporters that originated after the bryophytes but before or within the lycophytes. NUP1 expressed in yeast cells preferentially transported nicotine relative to other pyridine alkaloids, tropane alkaloids, kinetin, and adenine. NUP1-GFP primarily localized to the plasma membrane of tobacco Bright Yellow-2 protoplasts. WT NUP1 transcripts accumulated to high levels in the roots, particularly in root tips. NUP1-RNAi hairy roots had reduced NUP1 mRNA accumulation levels, reduced total nicotine levels, and increased nicotine accumulation in the hairy root culture media. Regenerated NUP1-RNAi plants showed reduced foliar and root nicotine levels as well as increased seedling root elongation rates. Thus, NUP1 affected nicotine metabolism, localization, and root growth.

Genetically Encoded, Noise-Tolerant, Auxin Biosensors in Yeast.

Auxins are crucial signaling molecules that regulate the growth, metabolism, and behavior of various organisms, most notably plants but also bacteria, fungi, and animals. Many microbes synthesize and perceive auxins, primarily indole-3-acetic acid (IAA, referred to as auxin herein), the most prevalent natural auxin, which influences their ability to colonize plants and animals. Understanding auxin biosynthesis and signaling in fungi may allow us to better control interkingdom relationships and microbiomes from agricultural soils to the human gut. Despite this importance, a biological tool for measuring auxin with high spatial and temporal resolution has not been engineered in fungi. In this study, we present a suite of genetically encoded, ratiometric, protein-based auxin biosensors designed for the model yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Inspired by auxin signaling in plants, the ratiometric nature of these biosensors enhances the precision of auxin concentration measurements by minimizing clonal and growth phase variation. We used these biosensors to measure auxin production across diverse growth conditions and phases in yeast cultures and calibrated their responses to physiologically relevant levels of auxin. Future work will aim to improve the fold change and reversibility of these biosensors. These genetically encoded auxin biosensors are valuable tools for investigating auxin biosynthesis and signaling in S. cerevisiae and potentially other yeast and fungi and will also advance quantitative functional studies of the plant auxin perception machinery, from which they are built.

Comparative Metabolomics of Fruits and Leaves in a Hyperdiverse Lineage Suggests Fruits Are a Key Incubator of Phytochemical Diversification.

Interactions between plants and leaf herbivores have long been implicated as the major driver of plant secondary metabolite diversity. However, other plant-animal interactions, such as those between fruits and frugivores, may also be involved in phytochemical diversification. Using 12 species of Piper, we conducted untargeted metabolomics and molecular networking with extracts of fruits and leaves. We evaluated organ-specific secondary metabolite composition and compared multiple dimensions of phytochemical diversity across organs, including richness, structural complexity, and variability across samples at multiple scales within and across species. Plant organ identity, species identity, and the interaction between the two all significantly influenced secondary metabolite composition. Leaves and fruit shared a majority of compounds, but fruits contained more unique compounds and had higher total estimated chemical richness. While the relative levels of chemical richness and structural complexity across organs varied substantially across species, fruit diversity exceeded leaf diversity in more species than the reverse. Furthermore, the variance in chemical composition across samples was higher for fruits than leaves. By documenting a broad pattern of high phytochemical diversity in fruits relative to leaves, this study lays groundwork for incorporating fruit into a comprehensive and integrative understanding of the ecological and evolutionary factors shaping secondary metabolite composition at the whole-plant level.

The unusual cell wall of the Lyme disease spirochaete Borrelia burgdorferi is shaped by a tick sugar.

Peptidoglycan-a mesh sac of glycans that are linked by peptides-is the main component of bacterial cell walls. Peptidoglycan provides structural strength, protects cells from osmotic pressure and contributes to shape. All bacterial glycans are repeating disaccharides of N-acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc) ß-(1-4)-linked to N-acetylmuramic acid (MurNAc). Borrelia burgdorferi, the tick-borne Lyme disease pathogen, produces glycan chains in which MurNAc is occasionally replaced with an unknown sugar. Nuclear magnetic resonance, liquid chromatography-mass spectroscopy and genetic analyses show that B. burgdorferi produces glycans that contain GlcNAc-GlcNAc. This unusual disaccharide is chitobiose, a component of its chitinous tick vector. Mutant bacteria that are auxotrophic for chitobiose have altered morphology, reduced motility and cell envelope defects that probably result from producing peptidoglycan that is stiffer than that in wild-type bacteria. We propose that the peptidoglycan of B. burgdorferi probably evolved by adaptation to obligate parasitization of a tick vector, resulting in a biophysical cell-wall alteration to withstand the atypical torque associated with twisting motility.

A Role for Inositol Pyrophosphates in the Metabolic Adaptations to Low Phosphate in Arabidopsis.

Phosphate is a major plant macronutrient and low phosphate availability severely limits global crop productivity. In Arabidopsis, a key regulator of the transcriptional response to low phosphate, phosphate starvation response 1 (PHR1), is modulated by a class of signaling molecules called inositol pyrophosphates (PP-InsPs). Two closely related diphosphoinositol pentakisphosphate enzymes (AtVIP1 and AtVIP2) are responsible for the synthesis and turnover of InsP8, the most implicated molecule. This study is focused on characterizing Arabidopsis vip1/vip2 double mutants and their response to low phosphate. We present evidence that both local and systemic responses to phosphate limitation are dampened in the vip1/vip2 mutants as compared to wild-type plants. Specifically, we demonstrate that under Pi-limiting conditions, the vip1/vip2 mutants have shorter root hairs and lateral roots, less accumulation of anthocyanin and less accumulation of sulfolipids and galactolipids. However, phosphate starvation response (PSR) gene expression is unaffected. Interestingly, many of these phenotypes are opposite to those exhibited by other mutants with defects in the PP-InsP synthesis pathway. Our results provide insight on the nexus between inositol phosphates and pyrophosphates involved in complex regulatory mechanisms underpinning phosphate homeostasis in plants.

Tumor necrosis factor plays a protective role in experimental murine cutaneous leishmaniasis.

The ability of mice to resist infection with L. major correlated directly with the capacity of their LNC to produce TNF in response to in vitro parasite challenge. Blocking TNF in vivo by passively administering anti-TNF antibodies exacerbated the course of L. major infection, resulting in substantially larger cutaneous lesions and elevated numbers of parasites within those lesions. In addition, treatment of infected mice with exogenous rHuTNF afforded host protection as evidenced by smaller lesion size and decreased parasite counts. Taken together, these results suggest a central role for TNF in resistance to L. major.

The role of cytokines in the generation of inflammation and tissue damage in experimental gram-positive meningitis.

Cytokines mediate many host responses to bacterial infections. We determined the inflammatory activities of five cytokines in the central nervous system: TNF-alpha, IL-1 alpha, IL-1 beta, macrophage inflammatory protein 1 (MIP-1), and macrophage inflammatory protein 2 (MIP-2). Using a rabbit model of meningeal inflammation, each cytokine (except IL-1 beta) induced enhanced blood brain barrier permeability, leukocytosis in cerebrospinal fluid, and brain edema. Homologous antibodies to each mediator inhibited leukocytosis and brain edema, and moderately decreased blood brain barrier permeability. In rabbits treated with anti-CD-18 antibody to render neutrophils dysfunctional for adhesion, each cytokine studied lost the ability to cause leukocytosis and brain edema. After intracisternal challenge with pneumococci, antibodies to TNF or IL-1 prevented inflammation, while anti-MIP-1 or anti-MIP-2 caused only a 2-h delay in the onset of inflammation. We suggest these cytokines have multiple inflammatory activities in the central nervous system and contribute to tissue damage during pneumococcal meningitis.

Interactions between human eosinophils and schistosomula of Schistosoma mansoni. II. The mechanism of irreversible eosinophil adherence.

Previous work (1)(1) has shown that normal human eosinophils show a preferential capacity, in comparison with neutrophils, to bind to antibody- coated schistosomula of Schistosoma mansoni. This effect is attributable to a temperature-dependent function of the eosinophil which renders its binding stable and irreversible by aggregated gamma globulin or Staphylococcus aureus protein A. In contrast, the binding of neutrophils is readily reversible by these agents. It has now been shown that the differences observed between eosinophils and neutrophils is a property of their interaction with living schistosomula. When dead or artificially damaged schistosomula were tested, neutrophils showed a markedly enhanced capacity to adhere, in both the presence and absence of anti-chistosomular serum. Subsequent experiments were designed to test the hypothesis that the strong, stable binding of eosinophils was attributable to degranulation, with release of granule contents which would then serve as ligands to bind the cell to the organism. First, an enhanced adherence both of eosinophils and of neutrophils could be demonstrated in the presence of eosinophil major basic protein (MBP) or of protamine, a high molecular weight cation. Second, the binding of eosinophils induced by concanavalin A (Con A) was found to differ markedly from that induced by antischistosomular serum. Con A-mediated binding of eosinophils was fully reversible by alpha-methyl-mannoside, was not associated with damage to the organism, and did not lead to degranulation of the cell, as estimated by measuring the release of MBP into the culture supernate. However, induction of degranulation of concanavalin A-bound eosinophils, but not of neutrophils, with the calcium ionophore A23187 converted the reaction into one which was no longer reversible by alpha- methylmannoside and in which damage to the organism now did occur. These findings support the hypothesis that the stable binding of eosinophils is associated with degranulation, a process which may contribute to the preferential capacity of this cell to mediate antibody-dependent damage to schistosomula.

Cloning and characterization of cDNAs for murine macrophage inflammatory protein 2 and its human homologues.

A cDNA clone of murine macrophage inflammatory protein 2 (MIP-2) has been isolated from a library prepared from lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells and the nucleotide sequence determined. This cDNA was used to clone cDNAs for human homologues of MIP-2 from a library prepared from phorbol myristate acetate-treated and LPS-stimulated U937 cells. Two homologues were isolated and sequenced. Human MIP-2 alpha and MIP-2 beta are highly homologous to each other and to a previously isolated gene, human gro/melanoma growth-stimulating activity (MGSA). These three human genes, MIP-2 alpha, MIP-2 beta, and gro/MGSA, constitute a sub-family within the cytokine family represented by platelet factor 4 and interleukin 8.

Myelopoietic enhancing effects of murine macrophage inflammatory proteins 1 and 2 on colony formation in vitro by murine and human bone marrow granulocyte/macrophage progenitor cells.

Two recently identified and purified murine macrophage inflammatory proteins MIP-1 and MIP-2 were tested in vitro both alone, and in combination with purified recombinant (r) murine (mu) GM-CSF, natural (n)muCSF-1, or rhuman (hu)G-CSF, for effects on mouse marrow CFU-GM, in combination with erythropoietin for effects on mouse marrow BFU-E, and in combination with rhuGM-CSF or rhuG-CSF for effects on human marrow CFU-GM. MIP-1 and MIP-2 did not stimulate, but did enhance by up to threefold, colony formation of mouse CFU-GM co-stimulated by rmuGM-CSF and nmuCSF-1, but not by rhuG-CSF, in the absence or presence of serum. MIP-1 and MIP-2 were maximally active at concentrations greater than or equal to 100 ng/ml and the actions appeared to be initiated during the DNA synthetic portion of the cell cycle. Neither MIP-1 nor MIP-2 at up to 1 microgram/ml had any effect on mouse BFU-E, in the absence or presence of erythropoietin. Both MIP-1 and MIP-2 had direct acting effects on purified mouse CFU-GM. The cloning efficiency of 200 purified cells plated with 50 U muCSF-1 was 82% with and 43% without MIP; the cloning efficiency with 50 U rmuGM-CSF was 65% with and 35% without MIP. MIP effects were not mimicked by bacterial LPS, rhuIL-1 alpha, rhuIL-6, or rmuIL-4, and were neutralized by their respective specific antibodies. MIP-1 and MIP-2 also enhanced endogenously stimulated and rhuGM-CSF-, but not rhuG-CSF-, stimulated colony formation by human marrow CFU-GM. These results demonstrate a new role for MIP-1 and MIP-2 in vitro as myelopoietic enhancing activities for CFU-GM.

Resolution of the two components of macrophage inflammatory protein 1, and cloning and characterization of one of those components, macrophage inflammatory protein 1 beta.

A number of macrophage-derived mediators have been implicated in the vascular changes of inflammation. We recently reported the isolation of a novel monokine, macrophage inflammatory protein 1 (MIP-1), which causes local inflammatory responses in vivo, and induces superoxide production by neutrophils in vitro. Purified native MIP-1 comprises two peptides with very similar physical characteristics. We report here the resolution of MIP-1 into component peptides by SDS-hydroxylapatite chromatography, and compare the NH2-terminal sequences of the two peptides, now referred to as MIP-1 alpha and MIP-1 beta. A synthetic oligonucleotide probe pool corresponding to the NH2-terminal amino acid sequence of MIP-1 beta was used to isolate a cDNA clone containing its coding sequence. The sequence codes for a 109 amino acid-long polypeptide, of which 69 amino acids correspond to the mature product. Comparison of this MIP-1 beta cDNA with our previously cloned MIP-1 alpha sequence reveals that the MIP-1 peptides, members of a growing family of potential inflammatory mediators, are distinct but highly homologous (58.9% sequence identity) products of different genes.

Spermine inhibits proinflammatory cytokine synthesis in human mononuclear cells: a counterregulatory mechanism that restrains the immune response.

The local production of proinflammatory cytokines mediates the host response to inflammation, infection, and injury, whereas an overexpression of these mediators can injure or kill the host. Recently, we identified a class of multivalent guanylhydrazone compounds that are effective inhibitors of proinflammatory cytokine synthesis in monocytes/macrophages. The structure of one such cationic molecule suggested a molecular mimicry with spermine, a ubiquitous endogenous biogenic amine that increases significantly at sites of inflammation and infection. Here, we addressed the hypothesis that spermine might counterregulate the innate immune response by downregulating the synthesis of potentially injurious cytokines. When spermine was added to cultures of human peripheral blood mononuclear cells stimulated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS), it effectively inhibited the synthesis of the proinflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor (TNF), interleukin-1 (IL-1), IL-6, MIP-1alpha, and MIP-1beta. The inhibition of cytokine synthesis was specific and reversible, with significant inhibition of TNF synthesis occurring even when spermine was added after LPS. The mechanism of spermine-mediated cytokine suppression was posttranscriptional and independent of polyamine oxidase activity. Local administration of spermine in vivo protected mice against the development of acute footpad inflammation induced by carrageenan. These results identify a distinct molecular counterregulatory role for spermine in downregulating the monocyte proinflammatory cytokine response.

Macrophages secrete a novel heparin-binding protein with inflammatory and neutrophil chemokinetic properties.

We report the identification and purification of a new inflammatory monokine synthesized by the macrophage tumor cell line RAW 264.7 in response to endotoxin. This monokine, which we term "macrophage inflammatory protein" (MIP), is a doublet with an apparent molecular mass of approximately 8,000 daltons on SDS-PAGE but forms aggregates of greater than 2 x 10(6) daltons as assessed by gel filtration. Partial NH2-terminal amino acid sequence data reveal no significant homology with any previously described protein. Although the monokine is anionic under physiological conditions, it is one of two major macrophage-secreted proteins that bind to heparin at high salt concentrations. At 100 ng/ml or greater, MIP is chemokinetic for human polymorphonuclear cells and triggers hydrogen peroxide production. Subcutaneous injection of 10 ng or greater of MIP into footpads of C3H/HeJ mice elicits an inflammatory response, characterized by neutrophil infiltration. These findings suggest that MIP is an endogenous mediator that may play a role in the host responses that occur during endotoxemia and other inflammatory events.

Suppression of proinflammatory cytokines in monocytes by a tetravalent guanylhydrazone.

An overproduction of proinflammatory cytokines by activated macrophages/monocytes mediates the injurious sequelae of inflammation, septic shock, tissue injury, and cachexia. We recently synthesized a tetravalent guanylhydrazone compound (CNI-1493) that inhibits cytokine-inducible arginine transport and nitric oxide (NO) production in macrophages, and protects mice against lethal endotoxemia and carrageenan-induced inflammation. During these investigations we noticed that CNI-1493 effectively prevented lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced NO production, even when added in concentrations 10-fold less than required to competitively inhibit L-arginine uptake, suggesting that the suppressive effects of this guanylhydrazone compound might extend to other LPS-induced responses. Here, we report that CNI-1493 suppressed the LPS-stimulated production of proinflammatory cytokines (tumor necrosis factor [TNF], interleukins 1beta and 6, macrophage inflammatory proteins 1alpha and 1beta) from human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Cytokine suppression was specific, in that CNI-1493 did not inhibit either the constitutive synthesis of transforming growth factor beta or the upregulation of major histocompatibility complex class II by interferon gamma (IFN-gamma). In contrast to the macrophage suppressive actions of dexamethasone, which are overridden in the presence of IFN-gamma, CNI-1493 retained its suppressive effects even in the presence of IFN-gamma. The mechanism of cytokine-suppressive action by CNI-1493 was independent of extracellular L-arginine content and NO production and is not restricted to induction by LPS. As a selective inhibitor of macrophage activation that prevents TNF production, this tetravalent guanylhydrazone could be useful in the development of cytokine-suppressive agents for the treatment of diseases mediated by overproduction of cytokines.

An Updated Perspective on Sinorhizobium meliloti Chemotaxis to Alfalfa Flavonoids.

The symbiotic interaction between leguminous plants and their cognate rhizobia allows for the fixation of gaseous dinitrogen into bioavailable ammonia. The perception of host-derived flavonoids is a key initial step for the signaling events that must occur preceding the formation of the nitrogen-fixing organ. Past work investigating chemotaxis - the directed movement of bacteria through chemical gradients - of Bradyrhizobium japonicum, Rhizobium leguminosarum, and Rhizobium meliloti discovered chemotaxis to various organic compounds, but focused on chemotaxis to flavonoids because of their relevance to the symbiosis biochemistry. The current work sought to replicate and further examine Sinorhizobium (Ensifer) meliloti chemotaxis to the flavonoids previously thought to act as the principal attractant molecules prior to the initial signaling stage. Exudate from germinating alfalfa seedlings was analyzed for composition and quantities of different flavonoid compounds using mass spectrometry. The abundance of four prevalent flavonoids in germinating alfalfa seed exudates (SEs) was at a ratio of 200:5:5:1 for hyperoside, luteolin, luteolin-7-glucoside, and chrysoeriol. Using quantitative chemotaxis capillary assays, we did not detect chemotaxis of motile S. meliloti cells to these, and two other flavonoids identified in seed exudates. In support of these findings, the flavonoid fraction of seed exudates was found to be an insignificant attractant relative to the more hydrophilic fraction. Additionally, we observed that cosolvents commonly used to dissolve flavonoids confound the results. We propose that the role flavonoids play in S. meliloti chemotaxis is insignificant relative to other components released by alfalfa seeds.