Viral Delivery of IL-7 Is a Potent Immunotherapy Stimulating Innate and Adaptive Immunity and Confers Survival in Sepsis Models.

Persistence of an immunosuppressive state plays a role in septic patient morbidity and late mortality. Both innate and adaptive pathways are impaired, pointing toward the need for immune interventions targeting both arms of the immune system. We developed a virotherapy using the nonpropagative modified vaccinia virus Ankara (MVA), which harbors the intrinsic capacity to stimulate innate immunity, to deliver IL-7, a potent activator of adaptive immunity. The rMVA-human IL-7 (hIL-7)-Fc encoding the hIL-7 fused to the human IgG2-Fc was engineered and shown to express a dimeric, glycosylated, and biologically active cytokine. Following a single i.v. injection in naive mice, the MVA-hIL-7-Fc increased the number of total and activated B, T, and NK cells but also myeloid subpopulations (Ly6Chigh, Ly6Cint, and Ly6Cneg cells) in both lung and spleen. It triggered differentiation of T cells in central memory, effector memory, and acute effector phenotypes and enhanced polyfunctionality of T cells, notably the number of IFN-γ-producing cells. The MVA vector contributed significantly to immune cell activation, particularly of NK cells. The MVA-hIL-7-Fc conferred a significant survival advantage in the cecal ligation and puncture (CLP) and Candida albicans sepsis models. It significantly increased cell numbers and activation in both spleen and lung of CLP mice. Comparatively, in naive and CLP mice, the rhIL-7-Fc soluble counterpart overall induced less vigorous, shorter lasting, and narrower immune activities than did the MVA-hIL-7-Fc and favored TNF-α-producing cells. The MVA-hIL-7-Fc represents a novel class of immunotherapeutic with clinical potential for treatment of septic patients.

By Binding CD80 and CD86, the Vaccinia Virus M2 Protein Blocks Their Interactions with both CD28 and CTLA4 and Potentiates CD80 Binding to PD-L1.

In this article we report that the M2 protein encoded by the vaccinia virus is secreted as a homo-oligomer by infected cells and binds two central costimulation molecules, CD80 (B7-1) and CD86 (B7-2). These interactions block the ligation of the two B7 proteins to both soluble CD28 and soluble cytotoxic T-lymphocyte associated protein 4 (CTLA4) but favor the binding of soluble PD-L1 to soluble CD80. M2L gene orthologues are found in several other poxviruses, and the B7-CD28/CTLA4 blocking activity has been identified for several culture supernatants of orthopoxvirus-infected cells and for a recombinant myxoma virus M2 protein homolog (i.e., Gp120-like protein, or Gp120LP). Overall, these data indicate that the M2 poxvirus family of proteins may be involved in immunosuppressive activities broader than the NF-κB inhibition already reported (R. Gedey, X. L. Jin, O. Hinthong, and J. L. Shisler, J Virol 80:8676-8685, 2006, https://doi.org/10.1128/JVI.00935-06). A Copenhagen vaccinia virus with a deletion of the nonessential M2L locus was generated and compared with its parental virus. This M2L-deleted vaccinia virus, unlike the parental virus, does not generate interference with the B7-CD28/CTLA4/PD-L1 interactions. Moreover, this deletion did not affect any key features of the virus (in vitro replication, oncolytic activities in vitro and in vivo, and intratumoral expression of a transgene in an immunocompetent murine model). Altogether, these first results suggest that the M2 protein has the potential to be used as a new immunosuppressive biotherapeutic and that the M2L-deleted vaccinia virus represents an attractive new oncolytic platform with an improved immunological profile.IMPORTANCE The vaccinia virus harbors in its genome several genes dedicated to the inhibition of the host immune response. Among them, M2L was reported to inhibit the intracellular NF-κB pathway. We report here several new putative immunosuppressive activities of M2 protein. M2 protein is secreted and binds cornerstone costimulatory molecules (CD80/CD86). M2 binding to CD80/CD86 blocks their interaction with soluble CD28/CTLA4 but also favors the soluble PD-L1-CD80 association. These findings open the way for new investigations deciphering the immune system effects of soluble M2 protein. Moreover, a vaccinia virus with a deletion of its M2L has been generated and characterized as a new oncolytic platform. The replication and oncolytic activities of the M2L-deleted vaccinia virus are indistinguishable from those of the parental virus. More investigations are needed to characterize in detail the immune response triggered against both the tumor and the virus by this M2-defective vaccinia virus.

TG1050, an immunotherapeutic to treat chronic hepatitis B, induces robust T cells and exerts an antiviral effect in HBV-persistent mice.

OBJECTIVE: To assess a new adenovirus-based immunotherapy as a novel treatment approach to chronic hepatitis B (CHB). METHODS: TG1050 is a non-replicative adenovirus serotype 5 encoding a unique large fusion protein composed of a truncated HBV Core, a modified HBV Polymerase and two HBV Envelope domains. We used a recently described HBV-persistent mouse model based on a recombinant adenovirus-associated virus encoding an over length genome of HBV that induces the chronic production of HBsAg, HBeAg and infectious HBV particles to assess the ability of TG1050 to induce functional T cells in face of a chronic status. RESULTS: In in vitro studies, TG1050 was shown to express the expected large polyprotein together with a dominant, smaller by-product. Following a single administration in mice, TG1050 induced robust, multispecific and long-lasting HBV-specific T cells detectable up to 1 year post-injection. These cells target all three encoded immunogens and display bifunctionality (i.e., capacity to produce both interferon γ and tumour necrosis factor α as well as cytolytic functions). In addition, control of circulating levels of HBV DNA and HBsAg was observed while alanine aminotransferase levels remain in the normal range. CONCLUSIONS: Injection of TG1050 induced both splenic and intrahepatic functional T cells producing cytokines and displaying cytolytic activity in HBV-naïve and HBV-persistent mouse models together with significant reduction of circulating viral parameters. These results warrant clinical evaluation of TG1050 in the treatment of CHB.

The sero-prevalence of anti-adenovirus 5 neutralizing antibodies is independent of a chronic hepatitis B carrier state in China.

We investigated the prevalence of neutralizing antibodies (NA) to human Adenovirus (Ad) 5 both in healthy subjects (HS) and Chronic Hepatitis B (CHB) patients in Shanghai. Detection of anti-Ad5 NA (percentage of detection and titers) was similar between HS and CHB patients. A high percentage of subjects harbored no detectable antibodies (32.2 %) while proportion of subjects displaying very high antibody titers was low (4 %). Neither demographic factors (gender, age, health) nor AST/ALT or HBV circulating DNA titers affected detection of Ad5-specific NA. These observations pave the ground for development of Ad5-based immunotherapeutics aiming at treating CHB patients in China.

TG6050, an oncolytic vaccinia virus encoding interleukin-12 and anti-CTLA-4 antibody, favors tumor regression via profound immune remodeling of the tumor microenvironment.

BACKGROUND: TG6050 was designed as an improved oncolytic vector, combining the intrinsic properties of vaccinia virus to selectively replicate in tumors with the tumor-restricted expression of recombinant immune effectors to modify the tumor immune phenotype. These properties might be of particular interest for "cold" tumors, either poorly infiltrated or infiltrated with anergic T cells. METHODS: TG6050, an oncolytic vaccinia virus encodes single-chain human interleukin-12 (hIL-12) and full-length anti-cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated antigen-4 (@CTLA-4) monoclonal antibody. The relevant properties of TG6050 (replication, cytopathy, transgenes expression and functionality) were extensively characterized in vitro. The biodistribution and pharmacokinetics of the viral vector, @CTLA-4 and IL-12, as well as antitumoral activities (alone or combined with immune checkpoint inhibitors) were investigated in several "hot" (highly infiltrated) and "cold" (poorly infiltrated) syngeneic murine tumor models. The mechanism of action was deciphered by monitoring both systemic and intratumoral immune responses, and by tumor transcriptome analysis. The safety of TG6050 after repeated intravenous administrations was evaluated in cynomolgus monkeys, with a focus on the level of circulating IL-12. RESULTS: Multiplication and propagation of TG6050 in tumor cells in vitro and in vivo were associated with local expression of functional IL-12 and @CTLA-4. This dual mechanism translated into a strong antitumoral activity in both "cold" and "hot" tumor models (B16F10, LLC1 or EMT6, CT26, respectively) that was further amplified when combined with anti-programmed cell death protein-1. Analysis of changes in the tumor microenvironment (TME) after treatment with TG6050 showed increases in interferon-gamma, of CD8+T cells, and of M1/M2 macrophages ratio, as well as a drastic decrease of regulatory T cells. These local modifications were observed alongside bolstering a systemic and specific antitumor adaptive immune response. In toxicology studies, TG6050 did not display any observable adverse effects in cynomolgus monkeys. CONCLUSIONS: TG6050 effectively delivers functional IL-12 and @CTLA-4 into the tumor, resulting in strong antitumor activity. The shift towards an inflamed TME correlated with a boost in systemic antitumor T cells. The solid preclinical data and favorable benefit/risk ratio paved the way for the clinical evaluation of TG6050 in metastatic non-small cell lung cancer (NCT05788926 trial in progress).

Mediation of antitumor activity by AZD4820 oncolytic vaccinia virus encoding IL-12.

Oncolytic viruses are engineered to selectively kill tumor cells and have demonstrated promising results in early-phase clinical trials. To further modulate the innate and adaptive immune system, we generated AZD4820, a vaccinia virus engineered to express interleukin-12 (IL-12), a potent cytokine involved in the activation of natural killer (NK) and T cells and the reprogramming of the tumor immune microenvironment. Testing in cultured human tumor cell lines demonstrated broad in vitro oncolytic activity and IL-12 transgene expression. A surrogate virus expressing murine IL-12 demonstrated antitumor activity in both MC38 and CT26 mouse syngeneic tumor models that responded poorly to immune checkpoint inhibition. In both models, AZD4820 significantly upregulated interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) relative to control mice treated with oncolytic vaccinia virus (VACV)-luciferase. In the CT26 study, 6 of 10 mice had a complete response after treatment with AZD4820 murine surrogate, whereas control VACV-luciferase-treated mice had 0 of 10 complete responders. AZD4820 treatment combined with anti-PD-L1 blocking antibody augmented tumor-specific T cell immunity relative to monotherapies. These findings suggest that vaccinia virus delivery of IL-12, combined with immune checkpoint blockade, elicits antitumor immunity in tumors that respond poorly to immune checkpoint inhibitors.

Design and selection of anti-PD-L1 single-domain antibody and tumor necrosis factor superfamily ligands for an optimal vectorization in an oncolytic virus.

Arming oncolytic viruses with transgenes encoding immunomodulators improves their therapeutic efficacy by enhancing and/or sustaining the innate and adaptive anti-tumoral immune responses. We report here the isolation, selection, and vectorization of a blocking anti-human PDL1 single-domain antibody (sdAb) isolated from PDL1-immunized alpacas. Several formats of this sdAb were vectorized into the vaccinia virus (VV) and evaluated for their programmed cell death protein 1 (PD1)/PD1 ligand (PDL1) blocking activity in the culture medium of tumor cells infected in vitro. In those conditions, VV-encoded homodimeric sdAb generated superior PDL1 blocking activity compared to a benchmark virus encoding full-length avelumab. The sdAb was further used to design simple, secreted, and small tumor necrosis factor superfamily (TNFSF) fusions with the ability to engage their cognate receptors (TNFRSF) only in the presence of PDL1-positive cells. Finally, PDL1-independent alternatives of TNFRSF agonists were also constructed by fusing different variants of surfactant protein-D (SP-D) oligomerization domains with TNFSF ectodomains. An optimal SP-D-CD40L fusion with an SP-D collagen domain reduced by 80% was identified by screening with a transfection/infection method where poxvirus transfer plasmids and vaccinia virus were successively introduced into the same cell. However, once vectorized in VV, this construct had a much lower CD40 agonist activity compared to the SP-D-CD40L construct, which is completely devoid of the collagen domain that was finally selected. This latest result highlights the importance of working with recombinant viruses early in the payload selection process. Altogether, these results bring several complementary solutions to arm oncolytic vectors with powerful immunomodulators to improve their immune-based anti-tumoral activity.

Vectorized Treg-depleting αCTLA-4 elicits antigen cross-presentation and CD8+ T cell immunity to reject 'cold' tumors.

BACKGROUND: Immune checkpoint blockade (ICB) is a clinically proven concept to treat cancer. Still, a majority of patients with cancer including those with poorly immune infiltrated 'cold' tumors are resistant to currently available ICB therapies. Cytotoxic T lymphocyte-associated antigen-4 (CTLA-4) is one of few clinically validated targets for ICB, but toxicities linked to efficacy in approved αCTLA-4 regimens have restricted their use and precluded full therapeutic dosing. At a mechanistic level, accumulating preclinical and clinical data indicate dual mechanisms for αCTLA-4; ICB and regulatory T cell (Treg) depletion are both thought to contribute efficacy and toxicity in available, systemic, αCTLA-4 regimens. Accordingly, strategies to deliver highly effective, yet safe αCTLA-4 therapies have been lacking. Here we assess and identify spatially restricted exposure to a novel strongly Treg-depleting, checkpoint-blocking, vectorized αCTLA-4, as a highly efficacious and potentially safe strategy to target CTLA-4. METHODS: A novel human IgG1 CTLA-4 antibody (4-E03) was identified using function-first screening for monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) and targets associated with superior Treg-depleting activity. A tumor-selective oncolytic vaccinia vector was then engineered to encode this novel, strongly Treg-depleting, checkpoint-blocking, αCTLA-4 antibody or a matching surrogate antibody, and Granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) (VVGM-αCTLA-4). RESULTS: The identified 4-E03 antibody showed significantly stronger Treg depletion, but equipotent checkpoint blockade, compared with clinically validated αCTLA-4 ipilimumab against CTLA-4-expressing Treg cells in a humanized mouse model in vivo. Intratumoral administration of VVGM-αCTLA-4 achieved tumor-restricted CTLA-4 receptor saturation and Treg depletion, which elicited antigen cross-presentation and stronger systemic expansion of tumor-specific CD8+ T cells and antitumor immunity compared with systemic αCTLA-4 antibody therapy. Efficacy correlated with FcγR-mediated intratumoral Treg depletion. Remarkably, in a clinically relevant mouse model resistant to systemic ICB, intratumoral VVGM-αCTLA-4 synergized with αPD-1 to reject cold tumors. CONCLUSION: Our findings demonstrate in vivo proof of concept for spatial restriction of Treg depletion-optimized immune checkpoint blocking, vectorized αCTLA-4 as a highly effective and safe strategy to target CTLA-4. A clinical trial evaluating intratumoral VVGM-αhCTLA-4 (BT-001) alone and in combination with αPD-1 in metastatic or advanced solid tumors has commenced.

Targeting the tumor mutanome for personalized vaccination in a TMB low non-small cell lung cancer.

BACKGROUND: Cancer is characterized by an accumulation of somatic mutations, of which a significant subset can generate cancer-specific neoepitopes that are recognized by autologous T cells. Such neoepitopes are emerging as important targets for cancer immunotherapy, including personalized cancer vaccination strategies. METHODS: We used whole-exome and RNA sequencing analysis to identify potential neoantigens for a patient with non-small cell lung cancer. Thereafter, we assessed the autologous T-cell reactivity to the candidate neoantigens using a long peptide approach in a cultured interferon gamma ELISpot and tracked the neoantigen-specific T-cells in the tumor by T-cell receptor (TCR) sequencing. In parallel, identified gene variants were incorporated into a Modified Vaccinia Ankara-based vaccine, which was evaluated in the human leucocyte antigen A*0201 transgenic mouse model (HHD). RESULTS: Sequencing revealed a tumor with a low mutational burden: 2219 sequence variants were identified from the primary tumor, of which 23 were expressed in the transcriptome, involving 18 gene products. We could demonstrate spontaneous T-cell responses to 5/18 (28%) mutated gene variants, and further analysis of the TCR repertoire of neoantigen-specific CD4+ and CD8+ T cells revealed TCR clonotypes that were expanded in both blood and tumor tissue. Following vaccination of HHD mice, de novo T-cell responses were generated to 4/18 (22%) mutated gene variants; T cells reactive against two variants were also evident in the autologous setting. Subsequently, we determined the major histocompatibility complex restriction of the T-cell responses and used in silico prediction tools to determine the likely neoepitopes. CONCLUSIONS: Our study demonstrates the feasibility of efficiently identifying tumor-specific neoantigens that can be targeted by vaccination in tumors with a low mutational burden, promising successful clinical exploitation, with trials currently underway.

Pseudocowpox virus, a novel vector to enhance the therapeutic efficacy of antitumor vaccination.

Objective: Antitumor viral vaccines, and more particularly poxviral vaccines, represent an active field for clinical development and translational research. To improve the efficacy and treatment outcome, new viral vectors are sought, with emphasis on their abilities to stimulate innate immunity, to display tumor antigens and to induce a specific T-cell response. Methods: We screened for a new poxviral backbone with improved innate and adaptive immune stimulation using IFN-α secretion levels in infected PBMC cultures as selection criteria. Assessment of virus effectiveness was made in vitro and in vivo. Results: The bovine pseudocowpox virus (PCPV) stood out among several poxviruses for its ability to induce significant secretion of IFN-α. PCPV produced efficient activation of human monocytes and dendritic cells, degranulation of NK cells and reversed MDSC-induced T-cell suppression, without being offensive to activated T cells. A PCPV-based vaccine, encoding the HPV16 E7 protein (PCPV-E7), stimulated strong antigen-specific T-cell responses in TC1 tumor-bearing mice. Complete regression of tumors was obtained in a CD8+ T-cell-dependent manner after intratumoral injection of PCPV-E7, followed by intravenous injection of the cancer vaccine MVA-E7. PCPV also proved active when injected repeatedly intratumorally in MC38 tumor-bearing mice, generating tumor-specific T-cell responses without encoding a specific MC38 antigen. From a translational perspective, we demonstrated that PCPV-E7 effectively stimulated IFN-γ production by T cells from tumor-draining lymph nodes of HPV+-infected cancer patients. Conclusion: We propose PCPV as a viral vector suitable for vaccination in the field of personalised cancer vaccines, in particular for heterologous prime-boost regimens.

Fluorescent Tagged Vaccinia Virus Genome Allows Rapid and Efficient Measurement of Oncolytic Potential and Discovery of Oncolytic Modulators.

As a live biologic agent, oncolytic vaccinia virus has the ability to target and selectively amplify at tumor sites. We have previously reported that deletion of thymidine kinase and ribonucleotide reductase genes in vaccinia virus can increase the safety and efficacy of the virus. Here, to allow direct visualization of the viral genome in living cells, we incorporated the ANCH target sequence and the OR3-Santaka gene in the double-deleted vaccinia virus. Infection of human tumor cells with ANCHOR3-tagged vaccinia virus enables visualization and quantification of viral genome dynamics in living cells. The results show that the ANCHOR technology permits the measurement of the oncolytic potential of the double deleted vaccinia virus. Quantitative analysis of infection kinetics and of viral DNA replication allow rapid and efficient identification of inhibitors and activators of oncolytic activity. Our results highlight the potential application of the ANCHOR technology to track vaccinia virus and virtually any kind of poxvirus in living cells.

Evaluation of heterologous prime-boost vaccination strategies using chimpanzee adenovirus and modified vaccinia virus for TB subunit vaccination in rhesus macaques.

Tuberculosis (TB) still is the principal cause of death from infectious disease and improved vaccination strategies are required to reduce the disease burden and break TB transmission. Here, we investigated different routes of administration of vectored subunit vaccines based on chimpanzee-derived adenovirus serotype-3 (ChAd3) for homologous prime-boosting and modified vaccinia virus Ankara (MVA) for heterologous boosting with both vaccine vectors expressing the same antigens from Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Ag85B, ESAT6, Rv2626, Rv1733, RpfD). Prime-boost strategies were evaluated for immunogenicity and protective efficacy in highly susceptible rhesus macaques. A fully parenteral administration regimen was compared to exclusive respiratory mucosal administration, while parenteral ChAd3-5Ag prime-boosting and mucosal MVA-5Ag boosting were applied as a push-and-pull strategy from the periphery to the lung. Immune analyses corroborated compartmentalized responses induced by parenteral versus mucosal vaccination. Despite eliciting TB-specific immune responses, none of the investigational regimes conferred a protective effect by standard readouts of TB compared to non-vaccinated controls, while lack of protection by BCG underpinned the stringency of this non-human primate test modality. Yet, TB manifestation after full parenteral vaccination was significantly less compared to exclusive mucosal vaccination.

A meta-analysis of the antiviral activity of the HBV-specific immunotherapeutic TG1050 confirms its value over a wide range of HBsAg levels in a persistent HBV pre-clinical model.

Pre-clinical models mimicking persistent hepatitis B virus (HBV) expression are seldom, do not capture all features of a human chronic infection and due to their complexity, are subject to variability. We report a meta-analysis of seven experiments performed with TG1050, an HBV-targeted immunotherapeutic, 1 in an HBV-persistent mouse model based on the transduction of mice by an adeno-associated virus coding for an infectious HBV genome (AAV-HBV). To mimic the clinical diversity seen in HBV chronically infected patients, AAV-HBV transduced mice displaying variable HBsAg levels were treated with TG1050. Overall mean percentages of responder mice, displaying decrease in important clinical parameters i.e. HBV-DNA (viremia) and HBsAg levels, were 52% and 51% in TG1050 treated mice, compared with 8% and 22%, respectively, in untreated mice. No significant impact of HBsAg level at baseline on response to TG1050 treatment was found. TG1050-treated mice displayed a significant shorter Time to Response (decline in viral parameters) with an Hazard Ratio (HR) of 8.3 for viremia and 2.6 for serum HBsAg. The mean predicted decrease for TG1050-treated mice was 0.5 log for viremia and 0.8 log for HBsAg, at the end of mice follow-up, compared to no decrease for viremia and 0.3 log HBsAg decrease for untreated mice. For mice receiving TG1050, a higher decline of circulating viremia and serum HBsAg level over time was detected by interaction term meta-analysis with a significant treatment effect (p = 0.002 and p<0.001 respectively). This meta-analysis confirms the therapeutic value of TG1050, capable of exerting potent antiviral effects in an HBV-persistent model mimicking clinical situations.

A multi-antigenic MVA vaccine increases efficacy of combination chemotherapy against Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

Despite the existence of the prophylactic Bacille Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccine, infection by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) remains a major public health issue causing up to 1.8 million annual deaths worldwide. Increasing prevalence of Mtb strains resistant to antibiotics represents an urgent threat for global health that has prompted a search for alternative treatment regimens not subject to development of resistance. Immunotherapy constitutes a promising approach to improving current antibiotic treatments through engagement of the host's immune system. We designed a multi-antigenic and multiphasic vaccine, based on the Modified Vaccinia Ankara (MVA) virus, denoted MVATG18598, which expresses ten antigens classically described as representative of each of different phases of Mtb infection. In vitro analysis coupled with multiple-passage evaluation demonstrated that this vaccine is genetically stable, i.e. fit for manufacturing. Using different mouse strains, we show that MVATG18598 vaccination results in both Th1-associated T-cell responses and cytolytic activity, targeting all 10 vaccine-expressed Mtb antigens. In chronic post-exposure mouse models, MVATG18598 vaccination in combination with an antibiotic regimen decreases the bacterial burden in the lungs of infected mice, compared with chemotherapy alone, and is associated with long-lasting antigen-specific Th1-type T cell and antibody responses. In one model, co-treatment with MVATG18598 prevented relapse of the disease after treatment completion, an important clinical goal. Overall, results demonstrate the capacity of the therapeutic MVATG18598 vaccine to improve efficacy of chemotherapy against TB. These data support further development of this novel immunotherapeutic in the treatment of Mtb infections.

Specific tumor cell targeting by a recombinant MVA expressing a functional single chain antibody on the surface of intracellular mature virus (IMV) particles.

Recombinant vaccinia virus with tumor cell specificity may provide a versatile tool either for direct lysis of cancer cells or for the targeted transfer of genes encoding immunomodulatory or toxic molecules. We report the expression of a tumor-specific single-chain antibody on the surface of intracellular mature vaccinia virus particles (IMV). The wild-type p14 externally membrane-associated protein p14 (A27L gene), which is not required for viral binding and replication, was replaced by p14 fusion molecules carrying a single-chain antibody directed against the tumor-associated antigen MUC-1. MUC-1 mucin is an epithelial cell antigen whose aberrant expression plays a role in autoimmunity and tumor immunity in the majority of human carcinomas and multiple myeloma. Fusion protein carrying the single-chain antibody at the NH2-terminal position was expressed and exposed at the envelope of the corresponding recombinant virus. The construct containing the antibody was able to bind a MUC-1 specific 60mer peptide. Moreover, targeted virus infects MUC-1-expressing cells in vitro more efficiently.

Vectorization in an oncolytic vaccinia virus of an antibody, a Fab and a scFv against programmed cell death -1 (PD-1) allows their intratumoral delivery and an improved tumor-growth inhibition.

We report here the successful vectorization of a hamster monoclonal IgG (namely J43) recognizing the murine Programmed cell death-1 (mPD-1) in Western Reserve (WR) oncolytic vaccinia virus. Three forms of mPD-1 binders have been inserted into the virus: whole antibody (mAb), Fragment antigen-binding (Fab) or single-chain variable fragment (scFv). MAb, Fab and scFv were produced and assembled with the expected patterns in supernatants of cells infected by the recombinant viruses. The three purified mPD-1 binders were able to block the binding of mPD-1 ligand to mPD-1 in vitro. Moreover, mAb was detected in tumor and in serum of C57BL/6 mice when the recombinant WR-mAb was injected intratumorally (IT) in B16F10 and MCA 205 tumors. The concentration of circulating mAb detected after IT injection was up to 1,900-fold higher than the level obtained after a subcutaneous (SC) injection (i.e., without tumor) confirming the virus tropism for tumoral cells and/or microenvironment. Moreover, the overall tumoral accumulation of the mAb was higher and lasted longer after IT injection of WR-mAb1, than after IT administration of 10 µg of J43. The IT injection of viruses induced a massive infiltration of immune cells including activated lymphocytes (CD8+ and CD4+). Interestingly, in the MCA 205 tumor model, WR-mAb1 and WR-scFv induced a therapeutic control of tumor growth similar to unarmed WR combined to systemically administered J43 and superior to that obtained with an unarmed WR. These results pave the way for next generation of oncolytic vaccinia armed with immunomodulatory therapeutic proteins such as mAbs.

A Novel MVA-Based Multiphasic Vaccine for Prevention or Treatment of Tuberculosis Induces Broad and Multifunctional Cell-Mediated Immunity in Mice and Primates.

Bacille Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccination of new born babies can protect children against tuberculosis (TB), but fails to protect adults consistently against pulmonary TB underlying the urgent need to develop novel TB vaccines. Majority of first generation TB vaccine candidates have relied on a very limited number of antigens typically belonging to the active phase of infection. We have designed a multi-antigenic and multiphasic vaccine, based on the Modified Vaccinia Ankara virus (MVA). Up to fourteen antigens representative of the three phases of TB infection (active, latent and resuscitation) were inserted into MVA. Using three different strains of mouse (BALB/c, C57BL/6 and C3H/HeN), we show that a single vaccination results in induction of both CD4 and CD8 T cells, displaying capacity to produce multiple cytokines together with cytolytic activity targeting a large array of epitopes. As expected, dominance of responses was linked to the mouse haplotype although for a given haplotype, responses specific of at least one antigen per phase could always be detected. Vaccination of non-human primates with the 14 antigens MVA-TB candidate resulted in broad and potent cellular-based immunogenicity. The remarkable plasticity of MVA opens the road to development of a novel class of highly complex recombinant TB vaccines to be evaluated in both prophylactic and therapeutic settings.

Immunological characterization of a modified vaccinia virus Ankara vector expressing the human papillomavirus 16 E1 protein.

Women showing normal cytology but diagnosed with a persistent high-risk human papillomavirus (HR-HPV) infection have a higher risk of developing high-grade cervical intraepithelial neoplasia and cervical cancer than noninfected women. As no therapeutic management other than surveillance is offered to these women, there is a major challenge to develop novel targeted therapies dedicated to the treatment of these patients. As such, E1 and E2 antigens, expressed early in the HPV life cycle, represent very interesting candidates. Both proteins are necessary for maintaining coordinated viral replication and gene synthesis during the differentiation process of the epithelium and are essential for the virus to complete its normal and propagative replication cycle. In the present study, we evaluated a new active targeted immunotherapeutic, a modified vaccinia virus Ankara (MVA) vector containing the E1 sequence of HPV16, aimed at inducing cellular immune responses with the potential to help and clear persistent HPV16-related infection. We carried out an extensive comparative time course analysis of the cellular immune responses induced by different schedules of immunization in C57BL/6 mice. We showed that multiple injections of MVA-E1 allowed sustained HPV16 E1-specific cellular immune responses in vaccinated mice and had no impact on the exhaustion phenotype of the generated HPV16 E1-specific CD8⁺ T cells, but they led to the differentiation of multifunctional effector T cells with high cytotoxic capacity. This study provides proof of concept that an MVA expressing HPV16 E1 can induce robust and long-lasting E1-specific responses and warrants further development of this candidate.

Comparative analysis of immunization schedules using a novel adenovirus-based immunotherapeutic targeting hepatitis B in naïve and tolerant mouse models.

Development of active targeted immunotherapeutics is a rapid developing field in the arena of chronic infectious diseases. The question of repeated, closely spaced administration of immunotherapeutics to achieve a rapid impact on the replicating agent is an important one. We analyzed here, using a prototype adenovirus-based immunotherapeutic encoding Core and Polymerase from the hepatitis B virus (Ad-HBV), the influence of closely spaced repeated immunizations on the level and quality of induced HBV-specific and vector-specific immune responses in various mouse models. Ad-HBV, whether injected once or multiple times, was able to induce HBV- and adeno-specific T cells both in HBV-free mice and in a HBV tolerant mouse model. Adenovirus-specific T cell responses and titers of neutralizing anti-Ad5 antibodies increased from time of the 3rd injection. Interestingly, single or multiple Ad-HBV injections resulted in detection of Polymerase-specific functional T cells in HBV tolerant mice. Overall no modulation of the levels of HBV-specific cytokine-producing (IFNγ/TNFα) and cytolytic T cells was observed following repeated administrations (3 or 6 weekly injections) when compared with levels detected after a single injection with the exception of two markers: 1. the proportion of HBV-specific IFNγ-producing cells bearing the CD27+/CD43+ phenotype appeared to be sustained in C57BL/6J mice following 6 weekly injections; 2. the percentage of IFNγ/TNFα Core-specific producing cells observed in spleens of HLA-A2 mice as well as of that specific of Polymerase observed in livers of HBV tolerant mice was maintained. In addition, percentage of HBV-specific T cells expressing PD-1 was not increased by multiple injections. Overall these data show that, under experimental conditions used, rapid, closely spaced administrations of an adenovirus-based HBV immunotherapeutics does not inhibit induced T-cell responses including in a HBV-tolerant environment.