The Nature of Antibacterial Adaptive Immune Responses against Staphylococcus aureus Is Dependent on the Growth Phase and Extracellular Peptidoglycan.

Staphylococcus aureus has evolved different strategies to evade the immune response, which play an important role in its pathogenesis. The bacteria express and shed various cell wall components and toxins during different stages of growth that may affect the protective T cell responses to extracellular and intracellular S. aureus However, if and how the dendritic cell (DC)-mediated T cell response against S. aureus changes during growth of the bacterium remain elusive. In this study, we show that exponential-phase (EP) S. aureus bacteria were endocytosed very efficiently by human DCs, and these DCs strongly promoted production of the T cell polarizing factor interleukin-12 (IL-12). In contrast, stationary-phase (SP) S. aureus bacteria were endocytosed less efficiently by DCs, and these DCs produced small amounts of IL-12. The high level of IL-12 production induced by EP S. aureus led to the development of a T helper 1 (Th1) cell response, which was inhibited after neutralization of IL-12. Furthermore, preincubation with the staphylococcal cell wall component peptidoglycan (PGN), characteristically shed during the exponential growth phase, modulated the DC response to EP S. aureus PGN preincubation appeared to inhibit IL-12p35 expression, leading to downregulation of IL-12 and an increase of IL-23 production by DCs, enhancing Th17 cell development. Taken together, our data indicate that exponential-phase S. aureus bacteria induce a stronger IL-12-dependent Th1 cell response than stationary-phase S. aureus and that this Th1 cell response shifted toward a Th17 cell response in the presence of PGN.

Acetylcholine-producing T cells in the intestine regulate antimicrobial peptide expression and microbial diversity.

The cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway reduces systemic tumor necrosis factor (TNF) via acetylcholine-producing memory T cells in the spleen. These choline acetyltransferase (ChAT)-expressing T cells are also found in the intestine, where their function is unclear. We aimed to characterize these cells in mouse and human intestine and delineate their function. We made use of the ChAT-enhanced green fluorescent protein (eGFP) reporter mice. CD4Cre mice were crossed to ChATfl/fl mice to achieve specific deletion of ChAT in CD4+ T cells. We observed that the majority of ChAT-expressing T cells in the human and mouse intestine have characteristics of Th17 cells and coexpress IL17A, IL22, and RORC The generation of ChAT-expressing T cells was skewed by dendritic cells after activation of their adrenergic receptor ß2 To evaluate ChAT T cell function, we generated CD4-specific ChAT-deficient mice. CD4ChAT-/- mice showed a reduced level of epithelial antimicrobial peptides lysozyme, defensin A, and ang4, which was associated with an enhanced bacterial diversity and richness in the small intestinal lumen in CD4ChAT-/- mice. We conclude that ChAT-expressing T cells in the gut are stimulated by adrenergic receptor activation on dendritic cells. ChAT-expressing T cells may function to mediate the host AMP secretion, microbial growth and expansion.

Human B cells promote T-cell plasticity to optimize antibody response by inducing coexpression of T(H)1/T(FH) signatures.

BACKGROUND: B cells mediate humoral immunity against pathogens but also direct CD4(+) T-cell responses. Recent plasticity studies in mice have challenged the concept of strict fate commitment during CD4(+) T-cell differentiation into distinct subsets. OBJECTIVE: We sought to elucidate the contribution of human antigen-primed B cells in CD4(+) T-cell responses that support humoral immunity. METHODS: CD4(+) T-cell differentiation by primary human B cells was investigated in in vitro cocultures by using tetanus toxoid and Salmonella species as antigen models. T-cell differentiation was assessed by using intracellular cytokines and subset-specific transcription factors and markers. IgM and IgG formation was analyzed by means of ELISA. RESULTS: Human B cells, but not dendritic cells, induce prominent and stable coexpression of TH1 and follicular helper T (TFH) cell characteristics during priming and on antigen recall. TH1/TFH cells coexpress the TH1 and TFH effector cytokines IFN-γ and IL-21 and the TFH marker CXCR5, demonstrating that the coexpressed TH1 and TFH subset-specifying transcription factors T-box transcription factor (T-bet) and B cell lymphoma 6 are both functionally active. B cell-derived IL-6 and IL-12 controlled respective expression of IL-21 and IFN-γ, with IL-21 being key for humoral immunity. CONCLUSION: Human B cells exploit CD4(+) T-cell plasticity to create flexibility in the effector T-cell response. Induction of a T-cell subset coexpressing IL-21 and IFN-γ might combine IL-21-mediated T-cell aid for antibody production while maintaining TH1 cytokine expression to support other cellular immune defenses.

CD5 costimulation induces stable Th17 development by promoting IL-23R expression and sustained STAT3 activation.

IL-17-producing CD4(+) T helper (Th17) cells are important for immunity against extracellular pathogens and in autoimmune diseases. The factors that drive Th17 development in human remain a matter of debate. Here we show that, compared with classic CD28 costimulation, alternative costimulation via the CD5 or CD6 lymphocyte receptors forms a superior pathway for human Th17-priming. In the presence of the Th17-promoting cytokines IL-1ß, IL-6, IL-23, and transforming growth factor-ß (TGF-ß), CD5 costimulation induces more Th17 cells that produce higher amounts of IL-17, which is preceded by prolonged activation of signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3), a key regulator in Th17 differentiation, and enhanced levels of the IL-17-associated transcription factor retinoid-related orphan receptor-γt (ROR-γt). Strikingly, these Th17-promoting signals critically depend on CD5-induced elevation of IL-23 receptor (IL-23R) expression. The present data favor the novel concept that alternative costimulation via CD5, rather than classic costimulation via CD28, primes naive T cells for stable Th17 development through promoting the expression of IL-23R.

B cell receptor-mediated internalization of salmonella: a novel pathway for autonomous B cell activation and antibody production.

The present paradigm is that primary B cells are nonphagocytosing cells. In this study, we demonstrate that human primary B cells are able to internalize bacteria when the bacteria are recognized by the BCR. BCR-mediated internalization of Salmonella typhimurium results in B cell differentiation and secretion of anti-Salmonella Ab by the Salmonella-specific B cells. In addition, BCR-mediated internalization leads to efficient Ag delivery to the MHC class II Ag-loading compartments, even though Salmonella remains vital intracellularly in primary B cells. Consequently, BCR-mediated bacterial uptake induces efficient CD4(+) T cell help, which boosts Salmonella-specific Ab production. BCR-mediated internalization of Salmonella by B cells is superior over extracellular Ag extraction to induce rapid and specific humoral immune responses and efficiently combat infection.

Alternative Ii-independent antigen-processing pathway in leukemic blasts involves TAP-dependent peptide loading of HLA class II complexes.

During HLA class II synthesis in antigen-presenting cells, the invariant chain (Ii) not only stabilizes HLA class II complexes in the endoplasmic reticulum, but also mediates their transport to specialized lysosomal antigen-loading compartments termed MIICs. This study explores an alternative HLA class II presentation pathway in leukemic blasts that involves proteasome and transporter associated with antigen processing (TAP)-dependent peptide loading. Although HLA-DR did associate with Ii, Ii silencing in the human class II-associated invariant chain peptide (CLIP)-negative KG-1 myeloid leukemic cell line did not affect total and plasma membrane expression levels of HLA-DR, as determined by western blotting and flow cytometry. Since HLA-DR expression does require peptide binding, we examined the role of endogenous antigen-processing machinery in HLA-DR presentation by CLIP(-) leukemic blasts. The suppression of proteasome and TAP function using various inhibitors resulted in decreased HLA-DR levels in both CLIP(-) KG-1 and ME-1 blasts. Simultaneous inhibition of TAP and Ii completely down-modulated the expression of HLA-DR, demonstrating that together these molecules form the key mediators of HLA class II antigen presentation in leukemic blasts. By the use of a proteasome- and TAP-dependent pathway for HLA class II antigen presentation, CLIP(-) leukemic blasts might be able to present a broad range of endogenous leukemia-associated peptides via HLA class II to activate leukemia-specific CD4(+) T cells.

Class II-associated invariant chain peptide down-modulation enhances the immunogenicity of myeloid leukemic blasts resulting in increased CD4+ T-cell responses.

BACKGROUND: Disease recurrence in patients with acute myeloid leukemia may be partially explained by the escape of leukemic blasts from CD4(+) T-cell recognition. The current study investigates the role of aberrant HLA class II antigen presentation on leukemic blasts by determining both the clinical and functional impact of the class II-associated invariant chain peptide (CLIP). DESIGN AND METHODS: The levels of expression of CLIP and HLA-DR on blood and bone marrow samples from 207 patients with acute myeloid leukemia were correlated with clinical outcome. Irradiated CLIP(-) and CLIP(+) leukemic blasts were compared for their ability to induce CD4(+) T cells during mixed leukocyte reactions. To discriminate between these blasts, we down-modulated CLIP expression on myeloid leukemic cell lines by RNA interference of the invariant chain, a chaperone protein critically involved in HLA-DR processing, and performed flow cytometric sorting for their isolation from primary acute myeloid leukemia samples. RESULTS: We found that patients with leukemic blasts characterized by a high amount of HLA-DR occupied by CLIP (relative amount of CLIP) had a significantly shortened disease-free survival. The clear reductions in amount of HLA-DR occupied by CLIP on blasts of the THP-1 and Kasumi-1 myeloid leukemic cell lines after treatment with invariant chain short interfering RNA resulted in enhanced rates of allogeneic CD4(+) T-cell proliferation. Similar findings were obtained in an autologous setting, in which there were strong increases in proliferation of remission CD4(+) T cells stimulated with CLIP(-)-sorted leukemic blasts from HLA-DR(+) acute myeloid leukemia patients, in contrast to CLIP(+)-sorted leukemic blasts from the same patients. CONCLUSIONS: These data highlight the relevance of CLIP expression on leukemic blasts and the potential of CLIP as a target for immunomodulatory strategies to enhance HLA class II antigen presentation and CD4(+) T-cell reactivity in acute myeloid leukemia.

Detection of aberrant transcription of major histocompatibility complex class II antigen presentation genes in chronic lymphocytic leukaemia identifies HLA-DOA mRNA as a prognostic factor for survival.

In human B cells, effective major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II-antigen presentation depends not only on MHC class II, but also on the invariant chain (CD74 or Ii), HLA-DM (DM) and HLA-DO (DO), the chaperones regulating the antigen loading process of MHC class II molecules. We analysed immediate ex vivo expression of HLA-DR (DR), CD74, DM and DO in B cell chronic lymphocytic leukaemia (B-CLL). Real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction demonstrated a highly significant upregulation of DRA, CD74, DMB, DOA and DOB mRNA in purified malignant cells compared to B cells from healthy donors. The increased mRNA levels were not translated into enhanced protein levels but could reflect aberrant transcriptional regulation. Indeed, upregulation of DRA, DMB, DOA and DOB mRNA correlated with enhanced expression of class II transactivator (CIITA). In-depth analysis of the various CIITA transcripts demonstrated a significant increased activity of the interferon-gamma-inducible promoter CIITA-PIV in B-CLL. Comparison of the aberrant mRNA levels with clinical outcome identified DOA mRNA as a prognostic indicator for survival. Multivariate analysis revealed that the prognostic value of DOA mRNA was independent of the mutational status of the IGHV genes. Thus, aberrant transcription of DOA forms a novel and additional prognostic indicator for survival in B-CLL.

Class II-associated invariant chain peptide expression on myeloid leukemic blasts predicts poor clinical outcome.

Effective antitumor responses need the activation of CD4+ T cells. MHC class II antigen presentation requires the release of class II-associated invariant chain peptide (CLIP) from the antigen-binding site. In antigen-presenting cells, human leukocyte antigen DM (HLA-DM; abbreviated DM in this article) catalyzes CLIP dissociation. In B cells, HLA-DO (DO) down-modulates DM function. Cell surface CLIP:HLA-DR (DR) ratio correlates to DO:DM ratio and the efficacy of antigen presentation. We examined 111 blood and bone marrow samples of patients with newly diagnosed acute myeloid leukemia (AML) for the expression of CLIP, DR, DM, and DO by flow cytometry. Patients with DR+/CLIP- blasts had a significant longer disease-free survival than patients with DR+/CLIP+ blasts. DO, until now believed to be restricted to lymphoid cells, could be demonstrated at protein level as well as by reverse transcription-PCR. DO:DM ratio correlated to CLIP:DR ratio, suggesting that, unlike in other antigen-presenting cells of the nonlymphoid cell type, both DO and DM mediate regulation of CLIP expression in AML blasts. We hypothesize that DR+/CLIP- AML blasts are able to present leukemia-specific antigens to CD4+ T helper cells initiating an effective and long-lasting antitumor response resulting in a prolonged disease-free survival.

Selective infection of antigen-specific B lymphocytes by Salmonella mediates bacterial survival and systemic spreading of infection.

BACKGROUND: The bacterial pathogen Salmonella causes worldwide disease. A major route of intestinal entry involves M cells, providing access to B cell-rich Peyer's Patches. Primary human B cells phagocytose Salmonella typhimurium upon recognition by the specific surface Ig receptor (BCR). As it is unclear how Salmonella disseminates systemically, we studied whether Salmonella can use B cells as a transport device for spreading. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Human primary B cells or Ramos cell line were incubated with GFP-expressing Salmonella. Intracellular survival and escape was studied in vitro by live cell imaging, flow cytometry and flow imaging. HEL-specific B cells were transferred into C57BL/6 mice and HEL-expressing Salmonella spreading in vivo was analyzed investigating mesenteric lymph nodes, spleen and blood. After phagocytosis by B cells, Salmonella survives intracellularly in a non-replicative state which is actively maintained by the B cell. Salmonella is later excreted followed by reproductive infection of other cell types. Salmonella-specific B cells thus act both as a survival niche and a reservoir for reinfection. Adoptive transfer of antigen-specific B cells before oral infection of mice showed that these B cells mediate in vivo systemic spreading of Salmonella to spleen and blood. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: This is a first example of a pathogenic bacterium that abuses the antigen-specific cells of the adaptive immune system for systemic spreading for dissemination of infection.

IL-17 and IL-22 in atopic allergic disease.

A long standing paradigm is that antigen-specific Th2 cells and their cytokines such as IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13 orchestrate the characteristic features of atopic allergy. The discovery of a role for IL-17-producing (Th17) and IL-22-producing (Th22) T helper cells in inflammatory diseases has added an additional layer of complexity to the understanding of the pathogenesis of allergic diseases. Here we re-evaluate the role of T helper cells, with special focus on the Th17 and Th22 subsets in allergic asthma and atopic dermatitis. Whereas sparse data point to a protective role of the increasing amounts of Th22 cells that are found in chronic stages of both allergies, the data on Th17 cells paint different pictures for the contribution of Th17 cells during subsequent stages of these two forms of allergy.

Antigen-specific B cells reactivate an effective cytotoxic T cell response against phagocytosed Salmonella through cross-presentation.

BACKGROUND: The eradication of facultative intracellular bacterial pathogens, like Salmonella typhi, requires the concerted action of both the humoral immune response and the cytotoxic CD8(+) T cell response. Dendritic cells (DCs) are considered to orchestrate the cytotoxic CD8(+) T cell response via cross-presentation of bacterial antigens onto MHC class I molecules. Cross-presentation of Salmonella by DCs however, is accompanied by the induction of apoptosis in the DCs. Besides antibody production, B cells are required to clear Salmonella infection for other unknown reasons. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Here we show that Salmonella-specific B cells that phagocytose Salmonella upon BCR-ligation reactivate human memory CD8(+) T cells via cross-presentation yielding a Salmonella-specific cytotoxic T cell response. The reactivation of CD8(+) T cells is dependent on CD4(+) T cell help. Unlike the DCs, B cell-mediated cross-presentation of Salmonella does not coincide with apoptosis. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: B cells form a new player in the activation of the cytotoxic effector arm of the immune response and the generation of effective adaptive immunity in Salmonella infection.