Assessing the In Vivo Effectiveness of Cationic Lipid Nanoparticles with a Triple Adjuvant for Intranasal Vaccination against the Respiratory Pathogen Bordetella pertussis.

Continuous outbreaks of pertussis around the world suggest inadequate immune protection in infants and weakened immune responses induced over time by the acellular pertussis vaccine. Vaccine adjuvants provide a means to improve vaccine immunogenicity and support long-term adaptive immunity against pertussis. An acellular pertussis vaccine was prepared with pertactin, pertussis toxin, and fimbriae 2/3 antigens combined with a triple-adjuvant system consisting of innate defense regulator peptide IDR 1002, a Toll-like receptor-3 agonist poly(I:C), and a polyphosphazene in a fixed combination. The vaccine was delivered intranasally in a cationic lipid nanoparticle formulation fabricated by simple admixture and two schema for addition of antigens (LT-A, antigens associated outside of L-TriAdj, and LAT, antigens associated inside of L-TriAdj) to optimize particle size and cationic surface charge. In the former, antigens were associated with the lipidic formulation of the triple adjuvant by electrostatic attraction. In the latter, the antigens resided in the interior of the lipid nanoparticle. Two dose levels of antigens were used with adjuvant comprised of the triple adjuvant with or without the lipid nanoparticle carrier. Formulation of vaccines with the triple adjuvant stimulated systemic and mucosal immune responses. The lipid nanoparticle vaccines favored a Th1 type of response with higher IgG2a and IgA serum antibody titers particularly for pertussis toxin and pertactin formulated at the 5 µg dose level in the admixed formulation. Additionally, the lipid nanoparticle vaccines resulted in high nasal SIgA antibodies and an early (4 weeks post vaccination) response after a single vaccination dose. The LT-A nanoparticles trended toward higher titers of serum antibodies compared to LAT. The cationic lipid-based vaccine nanoparticles formulated with a triple adjuvant showed encouraging results as a potential formulation for intranasally administered pertussis vaccines.

Strategies to link innate and adaptive immunity when designing vaccine adjuvants.

Adjuvants are important components of vaccine formulations. Their functions include the delivery of antigen, recruitment of specific immune cells to the site of immunization, activation of these cells to create an inflammatory microenvironment, and maturation of antigen-presenting cells for enhancement of antigen-uptake and -presentation in secondary lymphoid tissues. Adjuvants include a large family of molecules and substances, many of which were developed empirically and without knowledge of their specific mechanisms of action. The discovery of pattern recognition receptors including Toll-like-, nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain (NOD)- and mannose-receptors, has significantly advanced the field of adjuvant research. It is now clear that effective adjuvants link innate and adaptive immunity by signaling through a combination of pathogen recognition receptors (PRRs). Research in our lab is focused towards the development of novel adjuvants and immunomodulators that can be used to improve neonatal vaccines for humans and animals. Using a neonatal pig model for pertussis, we are currently analyzing the effectiveness of host defence peptides (HDPs), bacterial DNA and polyphosphazenes as vaccine adjuvants.

Synthetic Cationic Peptide IDR-1002 and Human Cathelicidin LL37 Modulate the Cell Innate Response but Differentially Impact PRRSV Replication in vitro.

Host defense peptides (HDPs) show both antimicrobial and immunomodulatory properties making them important mediators of the host immune system. In humans but also in pigs many HDPs have been identified and important families such as cathelicidins and defensins have been established. In our study, we assessed: (i) the potential interactions that could occur between three peptides (LL37, PR39, and synthetic innate defense regulator (IDR)-1002) and a common TLR ligand called poly(I:C); (ii) the impact of selected peptides on the response of alveolar macrophage (AM) to poly(I:C) stimulation; (iii) the anti-porcine respiratory and reproductive syndrome virus (PRRSV) properties of the peptides; and (iv) their adjuvant potential in a PRRSV challenge experiment after immunization with different vaccine formulations. The results are as following: LL37, PR39, and IDR-1002 were able to interact with poly(I:C) using an agarose gel migration assay. Then, an alteration of AM's response to poly(I:C) stimulation was observed when the cells were co-stimulated with LL37 and IDR-1002. Regarding the anti-PRRSV potential of the peptides only LL37 showed a PRRSV inhibition in infected AM as well as precision cut lung slices (PCLS). However, in our conditions and despite their immunomodulatory properties, neither LL37 nor IDR-1002 showed any convincing potential as an adjuvant when associated to killed PRRSV in a challenge experiment. In conclusion, both antiviral and immunomodulatory properties could be identified for LL37, only immunomodulatory properties for IDR-1002, and both peptides failed to improve the immune response consecutive to an immunization with a killed vaccine in a PPRSV challenge experiment. However, further studies are needed to fully decipher and explain differences between peptide properties.

A lipidic delivery system of a triple vaccine adjuvant enhances mucosal immunity following nasal administration in mice.

We previously developed an highly efficacious combination adjuvant comprised of innate defense regulator (IDR)-1002 peptide, poly(I:C) and polyphosphazene (TriAdj). Here we aimed to design and test the in vivo efficacy of a mucoadhesive nasal formulation of this adjuvant. To determine the physical properties of the formulation, the effect of addition of each individual component was characterised by gel electrophoresis and fluorescence quenching using rhodamine-poly(I:C). Cationic liposomes comprised of didodecyl dimethylammonium bromide (DDAB), dioleoyl phosphatidylethanolamine (DOPE) (50:50 or 75:25 mol:mol) and DDAB, L-α-phosphatidylcholine (egg PC) and DOPE (40:50:10 mol:mol:mol) were prepared by the thin-film extrusion method. The liposomes and TriAdj were combined by simple mixing. The formed complex (L-TriAdj) was characterized by dynamic light scattering, zeta potential, and mucin interactions. We found that IDR-1002 peptide, polyphosphazene and poly(I:C) self-assembled in solution forming an anionic complex. Exposure of RAW267.4 mouse macrophage cells to TriAdj alone vs. L-TriAdj indicated that DDAB/DOPE (50:50) and DDAB/EPC/cholesterol (40:50:10) complexation reduced TriAdj toxicity. Next, TriAdj-containing cationic liposomes were prepared at several molar ratios to determine optimal size, stability and desired positive charge. Transmission electron microscopy showed rearrangement of lipid structures on binding of liposomes to TriAdj and to mucin. Stable particles (<200 nm over 24 h) showed mucin binding of DDAB/DOPE + TriAdj was greater than DDAB/EPC/DOPE + TriAdj. To verify in vivo efficacy, mice were administered the DDAB/DOPE + TriAdj complex intranasally with ovalbumin as the antigen, and the immunogenic response was measured by ELISA (serum IgG1, IgG2a, IgA) and ELISpot assays (splenocyte IL-5, IFN-γ). Mice administered adjuvant showed a significantly greater immune response with L-TriAdj than TriAdj alone, with a dose-response proportionate to the triple adjuvant content, and an overall balanced Th1/Th2 immune response representing both systemic and mucosal immunity.

CD71+ erythroid suppressor cells impair adaptive immunity against Bordetella pertussis.

Infant's immune system cannot control infection or respond to vaccination as efficiently as older individuals, a phenomenon that has been attributed to immunological immaturity. Recently, we challenged this notion and proposed the presence of actively immunosuppressive and physiologically enriched CD71+ erythroid cells in neonates. Here we utilized Bordetella pertussis, a common neonatal respiratory tract pathogen, as a proof of concept to investigate the role of these cells in adaptive immunity. We observed that CD71+ cells have distinctive immunosuppressive properties and prevent recruitment of immune cells to the mucosal site of infection. CD71+ cells ablation unleashed induction of B. pertussis-specific protective cytokines (IL-17 and IFN-γ) in the lungs and spleen upon re-infection or vaccination. We also found that CD71+ cells suppress systemic and mucosal B. pertussis-specific antibody responses. Enhanced antigen-specific adaptive immunity following CD71+ cells depletion increased resistance of mice to B. pertussis infection. Furthermore, we found that human cord blood CD71+ cells also suppress T and B cell functions in vitro. Collectively, these data provide important insight into the role of CD71+ erythroid cells in adaptive immunity. We anticipate our results will spark renewed investigation in modulating the function of these cells to enhance host defense to infections in newborns.

Expression of TECK/CCL25 and MEC/CCL28 chemokines and their respective receptors CCR9 and CCR10 in porcine mucosal tissues.

CCL25 and CCL28 (also named TECK and MEC) are CC chemokines primarily expressed by thymic dendritic cells and mucosal epithelial cells. The cognate receptors of CCL25 and CCL28, named CCR9 and CCR10, are mainly expressed on T lymphocytes for CCR9 and IgA(+) and IgM(+) plasmablasts for CCR9 and CCR10, respectively. In human and mouse, chemokines CCL25 and CCL28 play an important role in attracting immune cells to the gastrointestinal tract and in controlling segmental specialization of the intestinal immune system. To investigate if CCL25 and CCL28 play a similar role in the pig and to better understand lymphocyte trafficking in this species, we cloned porcine CCL25 and CCR10 and measured expression of CCL25, CCL28, CCR9, and CCR10 transcripts by real-time and conventional PCR in various tissues from newborn and young piglets, and adult sows. The results of the expression analyses show that (i) expression of CCL25 mRNA is mainly restricted to the small intestine, (ii) CCL28 mRNA expression is detectable in all tested epithelial mucosal surfaces with the highest levels of expression in the mammary gland, trachea and large intestine, (iii) high levels of expression of CCR9 mRNA in CD3+ T lymphocytes, gut-associated lymphoid tissues (GALT), and the small intestine, (iv) high levels of expression of CCR10 mRNA in GALT, the large intestine, the small intestine, and the mammary gland, and (v) up-regulation of CCL28 mRNA expression during lactation in the mammary gland. This pattern of expression, which is discussed in the context of compartmentalization of the porcine common mucosal immune system into upper aero-digestive tract, small intestine and large intestine, suggests a key role for CCL28 in the recruitment of IgA secreting cells into the mammary gland enabling the passive transfer of IgA antibodies from mother to infant.

c-di-GMP enhances protective innate immunity in a murine model of pertussis.

Innate immunity represents the first line of defense against invading pathogens in the respiratory tract. Innate immune cells such as monocytes, macrophages, dendritic cells, NK cells, and granulocytes contain specific pathogen-recognition molecules which induce the production of cytokines and subsequently activate the adaptive immune response. c-di-GMP is a ubiquitous second messenger that stimulates innate immunity and regulates biofilm formation, motility and virulence in a diverse range of bacterial species with potent immunomodulatory properties. In the present study, c-di-GMP was used to enhance the innate immune response against pertussis, a respiratory infection mainly caused by Bordetella pertussis. Intranasal treatment with c-di-GMP resulted in the induction of robust innate immune responses to infection with B. pertussis characterized by enhanced recruitment of neutrophils, macrophages, natural killer cells and dendritic cells. The immune responses were associated with an earlier and more vigorous expression of Th1-type cytokines, as well as an increase in the induction of nitric oxide in the lungs of treated animals, resulting in significant reduction of bacterial numbers in the lungs of infected mice. These results demonstrate that c-di-GMP is a potent innate immune stimulatory molecule that can be used to enhance protection against bacterial respiratory infections. In addition, our data suggest that priming of the innate immune system by c-di-GMP could further skew the immune response towards a Th1 type phenotype during subsequent infection. Thus, our data suggest that c-di-GMP might be useful as an adjuvant for the next generation of acellular pertussis vaccine to mount a more protective Th1 phenotype immune response, and also in other systems where a Th1 type immune response is required.

Novel vaccine formulations against pertussis offer earlier onset of immunity and provide protection in the presence of maternal antibodies.

Whooping cough is a respiratory illness most severe in infants and young children. While the introduction of whole-cell (wP) and acellular pertussis (aP) vaccines has greatly reduced the burden of the disease, pertussis remains a problem in neonates and adolescents. New vaccines are needed that can provide early life and long-lasting protection of infants. Vaccination at an early age, however, is problematic due to the interference with maternally derived antibodies (MatAbs) and the bias towards Th2-type responses following vaccination. Here we report the development of a novel vaccine formulation against pertussis that is highly protective in the presence of MatAbs. We co-formulated pertussis toxoid (PTd) and filamentous hemagglutinin (FHA) with cytosine-phosphate-guanosine oligodeoxynucleotides (CpG ODN), cationic innate defense regulator (IDR) peptide and polyphosphazene (PP) into microparticle and soluble vaccine formulations and tested them in murine and porcine models in the presence and absence of passive immunity. Vaccines composed of the new adjuvant formulations induced an earlier onset of immunity, higher anti-pertussis IgG2a and IgA titers, and a balanced Th1/Th2-type responses when compared to immunization with Quadracel(®), one of the commercially available vaccines for pertussis. Most importantly, the vaccines offered protection against challenge infection in the presence of passively transferred MatAbs.

Influence of maternal antibodies on active pertussis toxoid immunization of neonatal mice and piglets.

Whooping cough caused by infection with Bordetella pertussis, is a serious illness in infants and young children. Mortality due to whooping cough is being reported in infants too young to be immunized as well as those who have not completed their series of vaccinations. One of the major factors that interferes with successful active immunization in early life is the presence of maternal antibodies (MatAbs). Using the mouse and pig models, we evaluated the effect of maternal antibodies on active immunization with pertussis toxoid (PTd) and explored strategies to overcome this interference. Our results indicate that passively transferred maternal antibodies interfered with active immunization using pertussis toxoid. The level of passively transferred antibodies directly correlated with the level of interference observed. However, this interference could be overcome by using a second booster immunization or by co-formulating the toxoid with novel adjuvants. These results support the need for novel vaccine formulations that are optimized for the neonate and that can be used not only to modulate the inherently biased neonatal immune system but also to prime the response in the presence of passively transferred maternal antibodies.

Infection with Bordetella parapertussis but not Bordetella pertussis causes pertussis-like disease in older pigs.

The 3 major Bordetella species--namely, B. pertussis, B. parapertussis, and B. bronchiseptica--can be distinguished by their different host ranges. B. bronchiseptica infects a wide range of mammals (including humans), whereas B. pertussis infects only humans and, under experimental conditions, mice and pigs. In contrast, B. parapertussis, also a causative agent of pertussis, displays a unique host specificity with 2 subgroups, one infecting only humans and the other infecting only sheep. Here, we show that both strains of B. parapertussis also infect older piglets when delivered intrapulmonarily. Infected piglets displayed mild fever and respiratory symptoms, such as coughing and breathing difficulties. Importantly, transmission was observed between infected and noninfected piglets. In tracheal organ cultures, adherence to ciliated epithelial cells was observed. Furthermore, both strains of B. parapertussis displayed higher resistance than B. pertussis to neutralization by porcine beta-defensin 1 in the respiratory tract, which has been demonstrated to be associated with protection against B. pertussis disease in older pigs. The development of this new model will assist us in better understanding the pathogenesis of this disease and in the development of more-effective vaccines against pertussis.