Macrophage ubiquitin-specific protease 2 contributes to motility, hyperactivation, capacitation, and in vitro fertilization activity of mouse sperm.

Macrophages are innate immune cells that contribute to classical immune functions and tissue homeostasis. Ubiquitin-specific protease 2 (USP2) controls cytokine production in macrophages, but its organ-specific roles are still unknown. In this study, we generated myeloid-selective Usp2 knockout (msUsp2KO) mice and specifically explored the roles of testicular macrophage-derived USP2 in reproduction. The msUsp2KO mice exhibited normal macrophage characteristics in various tissues. In the testis, macrophage Usp2 deficiency negligibly affected testicular macrophage subpopulations, spermatogenesis, and testicular organogenesis. However, frozen-thawed sperm derived from msUsp2KO mice exhibited reduced motility, capacitation, and hyperactivation. In addition, macrophage Usp2 ablation led to a decrease in the sperm population exhibiting high intracellular pH, calcium influx, and mitochondrial membrane potential. Interrupted pronuclei formation in eggs was observed when using frozen-thawed sperm from msUsp2KO mice for in vitro fertilization. Administration of granulocyte macrophage-colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF), whose expression was decreased in testicular macrophages derived from msUsp2KO mice, restored mitochondrial membrane potential and total sperm motility. Our observations demonstrate a distinct role of the deubiquitinating enzyme in organ-specific macrophages that directly affect sperm function.

Kainic acid-induced seizures in the common marmoset.

Treatment of epilepsy remains difficult because patients suffer from pharmacoresistant forms of the disease and drug side-effects. Thus, there is an urgent need to identify not only new antiepileptic drug candidates but also novel epileptic animal models. Here, we characterize seizures induced with kainic acid (KA) in the common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus). Adult marmosets received 0.1, 1, or 10 mg/kg of KA subcutaneously. All animals exhibited early convulsive behavior (seizure scores of I and II on the Racine scale). Seizure scores were low at lower KA doses, but the highest dose of KA tested triggered generalized seizures (scores IV and V on the Racine scale). We next performed preliminary evaluation of the efficacy of the antiepileptic drug diazepam. This drug at 1 mg/kg (delivered subcutaneously) prevented 10 mg/kg KA-induced stage V seizures. KA administration to marmosets reliably triggers generalized seizures; therefore, the marmoset is a useful animal model in which to analyze the seizures of a nonhuman primate brain and to develop new treatments for epilepsy.

Functional significance of rare neuroligin 1 variants found in autism.

Genetic mutations contribute to the etiology of autism spectrum disorder (ASD), a common, heterogeneous neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by impairments in social interaction, communication, and repetitive and restricted patterns of behavior. Since neuroligin3 (NLGN3), a cell adhesion molecule at the neuronal synapse, was first identified as a risk gene for ASD, several additional variants in NLGN3 and NLGN4 were found in ASD patients. Moreover, synaptopathies are now known to cause several neuropsychiatric disorders including ASD. In humans, NLGNs consist of five family members, and neuroligin1 (NLGN1) is a major component forming a complex on excitatory glutamatergic synapses. However, the significance of NLGN1 in neuropsychiatric disorders remains unknown. Here, we systematically examine five missense variants of NLGN1 that were detected in ASD patients, and show molecular and cellular alterations caused by these variants. We show that a novel NLGN1 Pro89Leu (P89L) missense variant found in two ASD siblings leads to changes in cellular localization, protein degradation, and to the impairment of spine formation. Furthermore, we generated the knock-in P89L mice, and we show that the P89L heterozygote mice display abnormal social behavior, a core feature of ASD. These results, for the first time, implicate rare variants in NLGN1 as functionally significant and support that the NLGN synaptic pathway is of importance in the etiology of neuropsychiatric disorders.

Correction: Functional significance of rare neuroligin 1 variants found in autism.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1006940.].

Comparison of gut microbiota composition between laboratory-bred marmosets (Callithrix jacchus) with chronic diarrhea and healthy animals using terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis.

Chronic diarrhea in laboratory-bred marmosets poses a serious health problem during experiments. Despite a growing demand for laboratory-bred experimental marmosets, the mechanisms underlying the development of diarrhea and measures for its treatment and prevention remain unclear. To explore the factors affecting development of chronic diarrhea in laboratory-bred marmosets, the gut microbiota composition (GMC) of 58 laboratory-bred marmosets, including 19 animals with chronic diarrhea, was analyzed using terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism. We found that the GMCs in these animals cluster into two groups that differ significantly in rate of chronic diarrhea (56.5% in one group, Cluster 1, and 17.1% in Cluster 2). Additionally, a higher α-diversity and a lower proportion of Bifidobacterium spp. according to quantitative PCR was found the animals in the Cluster 1 than in those in Cluster 2. Taken together, our findings indicate that there is a relationship between GMC and development of chronic diarrhea in laboratory-bred marmosets. This is the first study to highlight the potential of assessing GMC in relation to development of chronic diarrhea in laboratory-bred marmosets.

The lncRNA Neat1 is required for corpus luteum formation and the establishment of pregnancy in a subpopulation of mice.

Neat1 is a non-protein-coding RNA that serves as an architectural component of the nuclear bodies known as paraspeckles. Although cell-based studies indicate that Neat1 is a crucial regulator of gene expression, its physiological relevance remains unclear. Here, we find that Neat1 knockout (KO) mice stochastically fail to become pregnant despite normal ovulation. Unilateral transplantation of wild-type ovaries or the administration of progesterone partially rescued the phenotype, suggesting that corpus luteum dysfunction and concomitant low progesterone were the primary causes of the decreased fertility. In contrast to the faint expression observed in most of the adult tissues, Neat1 was highly expressed in the corpus luteum, and the formation of luteal tissue was severely impaired in nearly half of the Neat1 KO mice. These observations suggest that Neat1 is essential for the formation of the corpus luteum and for the subsequent establishment of pregnancy under a suboptimal condition that has not yet been identified.

Ubiquitin-Specific Protease 2 Modulates the Lipopolysaccharide-Elicited Expression of Proinflammatory Cytokines in Macrophage-like HL-60 Cells.

We investigated the regulatory roles of USP2 in mRNA accumulation of proinflammatory cytokines in macrophage-like cells after stimulation with a toll-like receptor (TLR) 4 ligand, lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Human macrophage-like HL-60 cells, mouse macrophage-like J774.1 cells, and mouse peritoneal macrophages demonstrated negative feedback to USP2 mRNA levels after LPS stimulation, suggesting that USP2 plays a significant role in LPS-stimulated macrophages. USP2 knockdown (KD) by short hairpin RNA in HL-60 cells promoted the accumulation of transcripts for 25 of 104 cytokines after LPS stimulation. In contrast, limited induction of cytokines was observed in cells forcibly expressing the longer splice variant of USP2 (USP2A), or in peritoneal macrophages isolated from Usp2a transgenic mice. An ubiquitin isopeptidase-deficient USP2A mutant failed to suppress LPS-induced cytokine expression, suggesting that protein ubiquitination contributes to USP2-mediated cytokine repression. Although USP2 deficiency did not accelerate TNF receptor-associated factor (TRAF) 6-nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) signaling, it increased the DNA binding ratio of the octamer binding transcription factor (Oct)-1 to Oct-2 in TNF, CXCL8, CCL4, and IL6 promoters. USP2 decreased nuclear Oct-2 protein levels in addition to decreasing the polyubiquitination of Oct-1. In summary, USP2 modulates proinflammatory cytokine induction, possibly through modification of Oct proteins, in macrophages following TLR4 activation.

Visualizing developmentally programmed endoreplication in mammals using ubiquitin oscillators.

The majority of mammalian somatic cells maintain a diploid genome. However, some mammalian cell types undergo multiple rounds of genome replication (endoreplication) as part of normal development and differentiation. For example, trophoblast giant cells (TGCs) in the placenta become polyploid through endoreduplication (bypassed mitosis), and megakaryocytes (MKCs) in the bone marrow become polyploid through endomitosis (abortive mitosis). During the normal mitotic cell cycle, geminin and Cdt1 are involved in 'licensing' of replication origins, which ensures that replication occurs only once in a cell cycle. Their protein accumulation is directly regulated by two E3 ubiquitin ligase activities, APC(Cdh1) and SCF(Skp2), which oscillate reciprocally during the cell cycle. Although proteolysis-mediated, oscillatory accumulation of proteins has been documented in endoreplicating Drosophila cells, it is not known whether the ubiquitin oscillators that control normal cell cycle transitions also function during mammalian endoreplication. In this study, we used transgenic mice expressing Fucci fluorescent cell-cycle probes that report the activity of APC(Cdh1) and SCF(Skp2). By performing long-term, high temporal-resolution Fucci imaging, we were able to visualize reciprocal activation of APC(Cdh1) and SCF(Skp2) in differentiating TGCs and MKCs grown in our custom-designed culture wells. We found that TGCs and MKCs both skip cytokinesis, but in different ways, and that the reciprocal activation of the ubiquitin oscillators in MKCs varies with the polyploidy level. We also obtained three-dimensional reconstructions of highly polyploid TGCs in whole, fixed mouse placentas. Thus, the Fucci technique is able to reveal the spatiotemporal regulation of the endoreplicative cell cycle during differentiation.

Modified autonomic regulation in mice mutated in the ß4 subunit of the lh/lh calcium channel.

Genetic analyses have revealed an important association between P/Q-type calcium channel activities and hereditary neurological disorders. The P/Q-type channels are composed principally of heterologous multimeric subunits including CaV2.1 and CaVß4. Of these, the ß4 subunit is thought to play a significant role in channel physiology, because a mouse line mutant in that subunit (the lethargic mouse: lh) exhibits a severe ataxic phenotype. The aim of the present study was to elucidate the physiological importance of the ß4 subunit. ECG analysis showed that the T wave was high in 8-week-old lh mutants; this may be associated with hyperkalemia. Upon pharmacological ECG analysis, 2-3-week-old lh mutants exhibited reduced responses to a ß-blocker and a muscarinic receptor antagonist. Analysis of heart rate variability revealed that the R-R interval was unstable in lh mutants and that both the low- and high-frequency components had increased in extent, indicating that the tonus of both the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems was modified. Thus, our present study revealed that the ß4 subunit played a significant role in regulation of sympathetic and parasympathetic nerve activities.

Absence-like seizures and their pharmacological profile in tottering-6j mice.

We previously showed that recessive ataxic tottering-6j mice carried a base substitution (C-to-A) in the consensus splice acceptor sequence linked to exon 5 of the α1 subunit of the Cav2.1 channel gene (Cacna1a), resulting in the skipping of exon 5 and deletion of part of the S4-S5 linker, S5, and part of the S5-S6 linker in domain I of the α1 subunit of the Cav2.1 channel. However, the electrophysiological and pharmacological consequences of this mutation have not previously been investigated. Upon whole-cell patch recording of the recombinant Cav2.1 channel in heterologous reconstitution expression systems, the mutant-type channel exhibited a lower recovery time after inactivation of Ca(2+) channel current, without any change in peak current density or the current-voltage relationship. Tottering-6j mice exhibited absence-like seizures, characterized by bilateral and synchronous 5-8 Hz spike-and-wave discharges on cortical and hippocampal electroencephalograms, concomitant with sudden immobility and staring. The pharmacological profile of the seizures was similar to that of human absence epilepsy; the seizures were inhibited by ethosuximide and valproic acid, but not by phenytoin. Thus, the tottering-6j mouse is a useful model for studying Cav2.1 channel functions and Cacna1a-related diseases, including absence epilepsy.

Identification of alpha-substituted acylamines as novel, potent, and orally active mGluR5 negative allosteric modulators.

This Letter describes the identification of a series of novel non-acetylenic mGluR5 negative allosteric modulators based on the alpha-substituted acylamine structure. An initial structure-activity relationship study suggested that (R)-19b and (R)-19j might have good in vitro activity. When administered orally, these compounds were found to have an anxiolytic-like effect in a mouse model of stress-induced hyperthermia.

Phosphorylated 5-ethynyl-2'-deoxyuridine for advanced DNA labeling.

The representative DNA-labeling agent 5-ethynyl-2'-deoxyuridine (EdU) was chemically modified to improve its function. Chemical monophosphorylation was expected to enhance the efficiency of the substrate in DNA polymerization by circumventing the enzymatic monophosphorylation step that consumes energy. In addition, to enhance cell permeability, the phosphates were protected with bis-pivaloyloxymethyl that is stable in buffer and plasma, and degradable inside various cell types. The phosphorylated EdU (PEdU) was less toxic than EdU, and had the same or a slightly higher DNA-labeling ability in vitro. PEdU was also successfully applied to DNA labeling in vivo. In conclusion, PEdU can be used as a less toxic DNA-labeling agent for studies that require long-term cell survival or very sensitive cell lines.

Analgesic effect of GT-0198, a structurally novel glycine transporter 2 inhibitor, in a mouse model of neuropathic pain.

This study was conducted to identify the characteristic pharmacological features of GT-0198 that is phenoxymethylbenzamide derivatives. GT-0198 inhibited the function of glycine transporter 2 (GlyT2) in human GlyT2-expressing HEK293 cells and did not bind various major transporters or receptors of neurotransmitters in a competitive manner. Thus, GT-0198 is considered to be a comparatively selective GlyT2 inhibitor. Intravenous, oral, and intrathecal injections of GT-0198 decreased the pain-related response in a model of neuropathic pain with partial sciatic nerve ligation. This result suggests that GT-0198 has an analgesic effect. The analgesic effect of GT-0198 was abolished by the intrathecal injection of strychnine, a glycine receptor antagonist. Therefore, GT-0198 is considered to exhibit its analgesic effect via the activation of a glycine receptor by glycine following presynaptic GlyT2 inhibition in the spinal cord. In summary, GT-0198 is a structurally novel GlyT2 inhibitor bearing a phenoxymethylbenzamide moiety with in vivo efficacy in behavioral models of neuropathic pain.

The discovery of potent glycine transporter type-2 inhibitors: design and synthesis of phenoxymethylbenzamide derivatives.

We describe the discovery of phenoxymethylbenzamide derivatives as a novel class of glycine transporter type-2 (GlyT-2) inhibitors. We found hit compound 1 (human GlyT-2, IC50=4040 nM) in our library and converted its 1-(1-(naphthalen-2-ylmethyl)piperidin-4-yl)pyrrolidin-3-yl group to an 1-(N,N-dimethylaminopropyl)piperidyl group and its tert-butyl group to a trifluoromethyl group to obtain N-(1-(3-(dimethylamino)propyl)piperidin-4-yl)-4-((4-(trifluoromethyl)phenoxy)methyl)benzamide (20). Compound 20 showed good inhibitory activity against human GlyT-2 (IC50=15.3 nM) and exhibited anti-allodynia effects in a mouse neuropathic pain model.

Expression and localization of the neuropeptide Y-Y4 receptor in the chick spleen: mRNA upregulation by high ambient temperature.

High ambient temperatures (HT) can increase diencephalic neuropeptide Y (NPY) expression, and central injection of NPY attenuates heat stress responses while inducing an antioxidative state in the chick spleen. However, there is a lack of knowledge about NPY receptor expression, and its regulation by HT, in the chick spleen. In the current study, male chicks were used to measure the expression of NPY receptors in the spleen and other immune organs under acute (30 vs. 40 ± 1°C for 3 h) or chronic (30 vs. 40 ± 1°C for 3 h/day for 3 days) exposure to HT and in response to central injection of NPY (47 pmol, 188 pmol, or 1 nmol). We found that NPY-Y4 receptor mRNA was expressed in the spleen, but not in other immune organs studied. Immunofluorescence staining revealed that NPY-Y4 receptors were localized in the splenic pulp. Furthermore, NPY-Y4 receptor mRNA increased in the chick spleen under both acute and chronic exposure to HT. Central NPY at two dose levels (47 and 188 pmol) and a higher dose (1 nmol) did not increase splenic NPY-Y4 receptor mRNA expression or splenic epinephrine under HT (35 ± 1°C), and significantly increased 3-methoxy-4-hydroxyphenylglycol (MHPG) concentrations under HT (40 ± 1°C). In conclusion, increased expression of NPY-Y4 receptor mRNA in the spleen under HT suggest that Y4 receptor may play physiological roles in response to HT in male chicks.

Comparative anatomy of marmoset and mouse cortex from genomic expression.

Advances in mouse neural circuit genetics, brain atlases, and behavioral assays provide a powerful system for modeling the genetic basis of cognition and psychiatric disease. However, a critical limitation of this approach is how to achieve concordance of mouse neurobiology with the ultimate goal of understanding the human brain. Previously, the common marmoset has shown promise as a genetic model system toward the linking of mouse and human studies. However, the advent of marmoset transgenic approaches will require an understanding of developmental principles in marmoset compared to mouse. In this study, we used gene expression analysis in marmoset brain to pose a series of fundamental questions on cortical development and evolution for direct comparison to existing mouse brain atlas expression data. Most genes showed reliable conservation of expression between marmoset and mouse. However, certain markers had strikingly divergent expression patterns. The lateral geniculate nucleus and pulvinar in the thalamus showed diversification of genetic organization between marmoset and mouse, suggesting they share some similarity. In contrast, gene expression patterns in early visual cortical areas showed marmoset-specific expression. In prefrontal cortex, some markers labeled architectonic areas and layers distinct between mouse and marmoset. Core hippocampus was conserved, while afferent areas showed divergence. Together, these results indicate that existing cortical areas are genetically conserved between marmoset and mouse, while differences in areal parcellation, afferent diversification, and layer complexity are associated with specific genes. Collectively, we propose that gene expression patterns in marmoset brain reveal important clues to the principles underlying the molecular evolution of cortical and cognitive expansion.

Analysis of ischemic neuronal injury in Cav2.1 channel α1 subunit mutant mice.

One of the main instigators leading to cell death and brain damage following ischemia is Ca(2+) dysregulation. Neuronal membrane depolarization results in the activation of voltage-gated Ca(2+) (CaV) channels and intracellular Ca(2+) influx. We investigated the physiological role of the CaV2.1 (P/Q-type) channel in ischemic neuronal injury using CaV2.1 channel α1 subunit mutant mice, rolling Nagoya and leaner mice. The in vivo ischemia model with a complete occlusion of the middle cerebral artery showed that the infarct area at 24h was significantly smaller in rolling Nagoya (27.1±3.5% of total brain volume) and leaner (20.1±3.5%) mice compared to wild-type (42.9±4.5%) mice. In an in vitro Ca(2+) imaging study, oxygen-glucose deprivation using a hippocampal slice induced a significantly slower rate of increase in intracellular Ca(2+) concentration ([Ca(2+)]i) in rolling Nagoya (0.083±0.007/min) and leaner (0.062±0.006/min) mice compared to wild-type (0.105±0.008/min) mice. These results demonstrate that the mutant CaV2.1 channel in rolling Nagoya and leaner mice plays a different protective role in a ([Ca(2+)]i)-dependent manner in ischemic models and indicate that CaV2.1 channel blockers may be used preventively against ischemic injury.

Prediction of relaxin-3-induced downstream pathway resulting in anxiolytic-like behaviors in rats based on a microarray and peptidome analysis.

The effect of the intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) injection of relaxin-3 (RLX3) was evaluated using anxiety-related behavioral tests in rats. RLX3-injected animals showed normal locomotion activity in a habituated environment and declined anxiety cognition in the elevated plus maze test and the shock probe-burying test. The measurement of spontaneous locomotor activity in a novel environment also suggested that RLX3 reduced the stress response. To elucidate the regulatory mechanisms of the downstream signaling pathways underlying RLX3 activity and its relation to anxiolytic and hyperphagic behavior phenotypes, RLX3-i.c.v.-injected rat hypothalamic responses were examined using a microarray analysis. Ingenuity Pathway Analysis software listed the phenotype-relating genes and they showed characteristic expression patterns in the rat hypothalamus. When peptidome data sets for the same listed genes was analyzed using a semi-quantitative approach, the expressions of two neuropeptides were found to have increased. One of these neuropeptides, oxytocin (Oxt), exhibited increased expression in both the microarray and the peptidomic analysis, and a Western blot analysis validated the mass spectrometry results. A cross-omics data analysis is useful for predicting downstream signaling pathways, and the anxiolytic-like behavior of RLX3 may be mediated by an oxytocin signaling pathway in rats. These results suggest that RLX3 acts as an anxiolytic peptide and that the downstream pathways mediated by its receptors may be potential candidates for the treatment of anxieties in the future.

Discovery of potent transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 antagonists: design and synthesis of phenoxyacetamide derivatives.

We aimed to discover a novel type of transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 (TRPV1) antagonist because such antagonists are possible drug candidates for treating various disorders. We modified the structure of hit compound 7 (human TRPV1 IC50=411 nM) and converted its pyrrolidino group to a (hydroxyethyl)methylamino group, which substantially improved inhibitory activity (15d; human TRPV1 IC50=33 nM). In addition, 15d ameliorated bladder overactivity in rats in vivo.

Selection of suitable reference genes for mRNA quantification studies using common marmoset tissues.

The common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus) is increasingly being used as a non-human primate animal model in biomedical research. To perform accurate quantitative analysis of gene expression by quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction, reliable reference genes should be selected. In this study, we evaluated the expressions of 11 widely used reference genes: ACTB, ATP5F1, B2M, GAPDH, HPRT1, PGK1, PPIA, RN18S1, RPLP0, TBP and UBC in 12 tissues and five brain areas of healthy common marmosets. NormFinder and geNorm indicated that the most suitable reference genes for cross-sectional studies of the 17 tissues were RN18S1 and RPLP0. Conversely, ACTB and PPIA were the most suitable for analyzing brain samples; however, the expression of PGK1 fluctuated among brain areas. These results indicate that suitable reference genes differ between the tissues examined. This study provides fundamental information for gene expression studies of the common marmoset and highlights the importance of validating reference genes before quantification of target mRNAs.