Diagnostic concordance for DSM-IV sleep disorders: a report from the APA/NIMH DSM-IV field trial.

OBJECTIVE: The frequency and ranking of DSM-IV sleep disorder diagnoses of clinical patients with complaints of insomnia, as well as rates of diagnostic agreement and disagreement between two types of interviewers, were investigated. METHOD: Interviewers at five clinical sites assessed 216 patients referred for insomnia complaints. One sleep specialist and one general clinician interviewed each patient in an unstructured clinical interview, assigned DSM-IV diagnoses, and indicated their reactions to the diagnostic system. RESULTS: Insomnia due to another mental disorder was the most frequent DSM-IV diagnosis across sites, followed by primary insomnia. Interviewers at the five sites differed significantly in the rankings they assigned to different diagnoses. In addition, sleep specialists at most sites diagnosed psychiatric forms of insomnia more frequently than nonspecialists. Kappa values for agreement between the two types of clinicians on multiple DSM-IV sleep diagnoses ranged from 0.26 to 0.80 across sites, indicating moderate agreement overall. Kappa values for individual diagnoses varied across sites and specific diagnoses and ranged from poor to excellent. Interviewers' ratings of their confidence in diagnoses and the fit and ease of use of the DSM-IV categories also showed significant variability related to site and type of interviewer. CONCLUSIONS: The distribution of diagnoses highlights the importance of psychiatric and behavioral factors in the assessment of insomnia. Site-related variability indicates a need for greater standardization in the application of sleep disorder diagnostic criteria. Diagnostic concordance for these diagnoses, while only moderately good, likely reflects actual clinical practice and would be improved through the use of standardized (or structured) interviews and increased training.

Clinical factors contributing to the differential diagnosis of primary insomnia and insomnia related to mental disorders.

OBJECTIVE: Primary insomnia and insomnia related to mental disorders are the two most common DSM-IV insomnia diagnoses, but distinguishing between them is difficult in clinical practice. This analysis was performed to identify clinical factors used by sleep specialists to distinguish primary insomnia from insomnia related to mental disorders. METHOD: Clinicians evaluated 216 patients referred for insomnia at five clinical sites, rated a list of clinical factors judged to contribute to each patient's presentation, and assigned diagnoses. Analysis of variance was performed, with contributing factors as the dependent variable and diagnostic group and clinic location as independent variables. RESULTS: Sleep specialists rated a psychiatric disorder as a stronger factor for insomnia related to mental disorders and rated negative conditioning and sleep hygiene as stronger factors for primary insomnia. However, a psychiatric disorder was rated as a contributing factor for 77% of patients who received a first diagnosis of primary insomnia. CONCLUSIONS: While neither sleep hygiene nor negative conditioning is a diagnostic criterion in DSM-IV, these results support the face validity of these clinical factors distinguishing between primary insomnia and insomnia related to mental disorders. The use of a psychiatric disorder as an inclusion criterion for insomnia related to mental disorders and an exclusion criterion for primary insomnia reinforces a categorical distinction between the two diagnoses, but the contribution of psychiatric symptoms in primary insomnia appears to be a clinically relevant one. These findings suggest the need for studies on the validity of negative conditioning and sleep hygiene in the etiology of primary insomnia, as well as on the significance of psychiatric disorders, especially depression, in primary insomnia.

Rectal valproate syrup and status epilepticus.

In one patient, status epilepticus did not respond to commonly used anticonvulsants but was completely controlled by sodium valproate syrup given rectally. Rectal use of valproate syrup may obviate the need for assisted respiration.

Multiple sclerosis and narcolepsy: possible similar genetic susceptibility.

We have studied 2 patients with multiple sclerosis and narcolepsy. In both patients, the DR 2 histocompatibility antigen was positive. In each of the patients, the diagnosis of narcolepsy was confirmed by polygraphic testing.

Effect of growth hormone treatment on sleep EEGs in growth hormone-deficient children.

Total sleep time, sleep stages 1-4, REM, REM latency, and sleep efficiency were analyzed in seven children with growth hormone deficiency (GHD) before and after growth hormone (GH) therapy. Before GH therapy, GHD children spent 19.5% of their total sleep time in REM sleep, 9.7% in stage 1, 41.0% in stage 2, 10.0% in stage 3, and 19.7% in stage 4. GHD children had more stage 1 and 3 sleep and less REM as compared with age-matched normal children reported by Williams et al. After GH therapy was initiated, six of the seven patients had decreases in the duration of stage 3 sleep, with an average decrease of 21.8 min. The difference between stage 3 sleep before and during GH treatment was significant, with a p value of less than 0.025. When the results were expressed as the percentage of the total sleep period, the difference was also significant, (10.0 +/- 2.0 to 7.5 +/- 3.1%, mean +/- SD; p less than 0.05). No other sleep parameters were significantly affected by GH therapy. The changes observed in stage 3 sleep, non-REM sleep, and the lack of any other changes in sleep before and after GH therapy have not been described before in GH-deficient children. They differ from studies in normal humans and animals which showed that REM sleep increased with administration of growth hormone. These differences suggest that GH deficiency is associated with a specific sleep EEG anomaly that is corrected in part by GH therapy.

Treatment of chronic insomnia by restriction of time in bed.

A treatment of chronic insomnia is described that is based on the recognition that excessive time spent in bed is one of the important factors that perpetuates insomnia. Thirty-five patients, with a mean age of 46 years and a mean history of insomnia of 15.4 years, were treated initially by marked restriction of time available for sleep, followed by an extension of time in bed contingent upon improved sleep efficiency. At the end of the 8-week treatment program, patients reported an increase in total sleep time (p less than 0.05) as well as improvement in sleep latency, total wake time, sleep efficiency, and subjective assessment of their insomnia (all p less than 0.0001). Improvement remained significant for all sleep parameters at a mean of 36 weeks after treatment in 23 subjects participating in a follow-up assessment. Although compliance with the restricted schedule is difficult for some patients, sleep restriction therapy is an effective treatment for common forms of chronic insomnia.

Effects of otolithic vestibular stimulation on sleep.

This study evaluated the effects of otolithic vestibular stimulation in the form of a linearly accelerated parallel swing on nighttime sleep parameters and daytime sleep tendency in eight normal subjects. The protocol consisted of one adaptation night following by two motion nights, one adaptation night followed by two stationary nights, and two Multiple Sleep Latency Tests (MSLT), one motion and one stationary. On the motion nights, there was a decrease in stage 2 percentage as well as a facilitative effect on sleep latency on the last night. In addition, an increase in the number of rapid eye movements (REMs) per night was found without a significant alteration of REM sleep amount or latency. No significant differences were found between the motion and stationary MSLT days.

T-sleep: an improved method for scoring breathing-disordered sleep.

We developed a new method to score sleep fragmented by respiratory events that we call the T-sleep (transitional sleep scoring) method. Five control polysomnograms from subjects without sleep-related breathing abnormalities were scored by the Rechtschaffen and Kales (R&K) method, and 10 polysomnograms from patients with severe obstructive sleep apnea were scored by both the R&K and the T-sleep method. Comparative analyses were performed on sleep variables of the control and apnea polysomnograms, and interscorer correlations were assessed for sleep and apnea variables. The interscorer correlations were high for both R&K control scoring and for apnea recordings scored by the T-sleep method. The number of sleep stage events documented for the 10 apnea recordings was significantly less for the T-sleep method than the R&K method (36, SD 17.0 vs. 332, SD 144.0; p = 0.0002). The T-sleep method was shown to be an effective, accurate and quick method for scoring sleep in patients with sleep-related breathing disorders.

Short-term triazolam use improves nocturnal sleep of narcoleptics.

This study was undertaken to determine whether the use of triazolam by narcoleptic patients leads to improvement of nighttime sleep or excessive sleepiness. Ten narcoleptic patients, 5 males and 5 females, with complaints of sleep disturbance and aged between 18 and 60 years, were assigned to a single-blind within-subject crossover-designed study comparing placebo with 0.25 mg triazolam. All subjects completed sleep questionnaires and underwent 6 nights of polysomnographic testing. Following an adaptation night, subjects received either triazolam or placebo for 2 nights. Objective tests of sleepiness (multiple sleep latency testing/maintenance of wakefulness test) were performed. Sleep efficiency and overall sleep quality were improved on all triazolam nights. Daytime excessive sleepiness was not reduced objectively after triazolam. This study demonstrates that the short-term use of triazolam improves nocturnal sleep quality in narcoleptics. Studies of long-term administration of triazolam are required to determine if the improvement of nocturnal sleep is maintained.

Clinical diagnoses in 216 insomnia patients using the International Classification of Sleep Disorders (ICSD), DSM-IV and ICD-10 categories: a report from the APA/NIMH DSM-IV Field Trial.

Three diagnostic classifications for sleep disorders have been developed recently: the International Classification of Sleep Disorders (ICSD), the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual, 4th edition (DSM-IV), and the International Classification of Diseases, 10th edition (ICD-10). No data have yet been published regarding the frequency of specific diagnoses within these systems or how the diagnostic systems relate to each other. To address these issues, we examined clinical sleep disorder diagnoses (without polysomnography) in 257 patients (216 insomnia patients and 41 medical/psychiatric patients) evaluated at five sleep centers. A sleep specialist interviewed each patient and assigned clinical diagnoses using ICSD, DSM-IV and ICD-10 classifications. "Sleep disorder associated with mood disorder" was the most frequent ICSD primary diagnosis (32.3% of cases), followed by "Psychophysiological insomnia" (12.5% of cases). The most frequent DSM-IV primary diagnoses were "Insomnia related to another mental disorder" (44% of cases) and "Primary insomnia" (20.2% of cases), and the most frequent ICD-10 diagnoses were "Insomnia due to emotional causes" (61.9% of cases) and "Insomnia of organic origin" (8.9% of cases). When primary and secondary diagnoses were considered, insomnia related to psychiatric disorders was diagnosed in over 75% of patients. The more narrowly defined ICSD diagnoses nested logically within the broader DSM-IV and ICD-10 categories. We found substantial site-related differences in diagnostic patterns. These results confirm the importance of psychiatric and behavioral factors in clinicians' assessments of insomnia patients across all three diagnostic systems. ICSD and DSM-IV sleep disorder diagnoses have similar patterns of use by experienced clinicians.

Dynamics of REM sleep in narcolepsy.

The discovery of sleep onset REM periods (SOREMPs) in narcolepsy first suggested the important role of REM sleep in the disorder. We have conducted a series of studies exploring factors that affect the onset and termination of REM sleep in narcolepsy. Following a preliminary study of REM sleep deprivation, we compared the sleep onset response of narcoleptic and normal subjects to awakenings at REM sleep onsets and awakenings during NREM sleep. In addition, we have investigated the relationship of these awakenings to daytime sleepiness. We have demonstrated that an index of the REM sleep process predicts the sleepiness of both normal and narcoleptic subjects. The finding of increased frequency of SOREMPs following both REM and NREM sleep awakenings in the narcoleptic patient suggests that accelerated triggering and inertia of the REM sleep process are pathophysiological mechanisms of the disorder.

Effects of diagnosis on treatment recommendations in chronic insomnia--a report from the APA/NIMH DSM-IV field trial.

The objective of this study was to determine whether sleep specialists and nonspecialists recommend different treatments for different insomnia diagnoses according to two different diagnostic classifications. Two hundred sixteen patients with chronic insomnia at five sites were each interviewed by two clinicians: one sleep specialist and one nonsleep specialist. All interviewers indicated diagnoses using the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fourth edition (DSM-IV); sleep specialists also indicated diagnoses according to the International Classification for Sleep Disorders (ICSD). Interviewers then indicated how strongly they would recommend each item in a standard list of treatment and diagnostic interventions for each patient. We examined differences in treatment recommendations among the six most common DSM-IV diagnoses assigned by sleep specialists at different sites (n = 192), among the six most common ICSD diagnoses assigned by sleep specialists at different sites (n = 153), and among the six most common DSM-IV diagnoses assigned by nonspecialists at different sites (n = 186). In each analysis, specific treatment and polysomnography recommendations differed significantly for different diagnoses, using either DSM-IV or ICSD criteria. Conversely, different diagnoses were associated with different rank orderings of specific treatment and diagnostic recommendations. Sleep specialist and nonspecialist interviewers each distinguished treatment recommendations among different diagnoses, but in general, nonspecialists more strongly recommended medications and relaxation treatments. Significant site-related differences in treatment recommendations also emerged. Differences in treatment recommendations support the distinction between different DSM-IV and ICSD diagnoses, although they do not provide formal validation. Site-related differences suggest a lack of consensus in how these disorders are conceptualized and treated.

Parasomnias.

This article presents four examples of parasomnia activity. Sleepwalking, sleep terror, and rhythmic movement disorder all occur more commonly in children; however, they can persist into adulthood. REM behavior disorder frequently occurs in elderly patients with neurologic lesions. The sleep stage associations of the different disorders differ. Two of the disorders, sleepwalking and sleep terrors, have a clear association with stage 3/4 sleep, and REM behavior disorder occurs in REM sleep. Rhythmic movement disorder episodes can present solely in REM sleep but more typically occur in light non-REM sleep, and there are usually voluntary episodes during wakefulness.

Classification of sleep disorders.

This review discusses recent developments in classifying the sleep disorders. Several classification systems are presented, and the Diagnostic Classification of the Sleep and Arousal Disorders (DCSAD), published by the Association of Sleep Disorders Centers in 1979, is used as the basis for reviewing their differences. The four main sections of the DCSAD are presented: the disorders of initiating and maintaining sleep, the disorders of excessive somnolence, the sleep-wake schedule disorders, and the dysfunctions associated with sleep, sleep stages, or partial arousals. Disorders discovered since the publication of the DCSAD are mentioned along with the new nomenclature of the International Classification of Sleep Disorders, due to be published in 1990. References are given to the original clinical descriptions and nomenclature.

Predictive value of Müller maneuver in selection of patients for uvulopalatopharyngoplasty.

Uvulopalatopharyngoplasty (UPPP) is an effective treatment for some patients with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome (OSAS). A major difficulty has been to select those patients who will have a good response to UPPP. Fiberoptic nasopharyngoscopy with Müller Maneuver (FNMM) was applied in preoperative evaluation of patients with OSAS to identify those in whom greatest pharyngeal collapse was in the region of the tonsillar fossae and soft palate. Those with pharyngeal changes on FNMM who were considered most likely to respond to surgery underwent UPPP. Comparison of pre and postoperative polysomnography reveals significant (p less than .001) improvement in indices of severity of OSAS The mean apnea index (apneas per hour) was diminished by 72%. Eighty-seven percent of patients had greater than 50% reduction in apnea index. Preoperative selection of OSAS patients by FNMM increases the likelihood of success of UPPP.

Endoscopic observations of obstructive sleep apnea in children with anomalous upper airways: predictive and therapeutic value.

This report describes the variability in the mechanism of upper airway collapse seen in children with obstructive apnea secondary to craniofacial anomalies. Emphasis is on the nasopharyngoscopic observation of the upper airway and the accurate assessment of the site and mechanism of obstruction in order to prescribe the appropriate treatment.

Sleep-related laryngospasm.

Seven patients (mean age 46.6; range 33-58; 6M,1F) presented with sleep-related choking episodes and were found to have features in common that distinguished them from other known causes of choking episodes during sleep. The characteristic features include: an awakening from sleep with an acute choking sensation, stridor, panic, tachycardia, short duration of episode (less than 60 seconds), infrequent episodes (typically less than 1 per month), and absence of any known etiology. The disorder most commonly occurs in middle-aged males who are otherwise healthy. In one patient an episode of laryngospasm was polysomnographically documented to occur during stage 3. The clinical features and the polysomnographic findings suggest spasm of the vocal cords of unknown etiology.

Excessive sleepiness: under-recognized and essential marker for sleep/wake disorder management.

BACKGROUND: Research during the past few decades has provided substantial evidence indicating that excessive sleepiness (ES) and associated sleep/wake disorders can result in significant morbidity and mortality. However, symptomatology (e.g., ES) and the relationships among common morbidities (e.g., cardiovascular disease, metabolic disorders, mood impairment) and sleep/wake disorders remain under-recognized in clinical practice, particularly in primary care. Yet assessment of sleep/wakefulness and associated symptoms can often be easily conducted in the primary care setting, providing valuable information to facilitate the diagnosis and management of sleep/wake disorders. OBJECTIVE: To provide a conceptual and educational framework that helps primary care physicians comprehensively assess, differentially diagnosis, and appropriately manage patients presenting with ES or ES-related sleep/wake disorders. METHODS: Comprised of six sleep specialists and six primary care physicians, the Sleep/Wake Disorders Working Group (SWG) used a modified, two-round Delphi approach to create and harmonize consensus recommendations for the assessment, diagnosis, treatment, and ongoing management of patients with common sleep/wake disorders related to ES. RESULTS: After a review of the relevant literature, the SWG arrived at consensus on a number of clinical recommendations for the assessment and management ES and some of the most commonly associated sleep/wake disorders. Ten consensus statements ­ five each for assessment/diagnosis and treatment/ongoing care ­ were created for ES, insomnia, obstructive sleep apnea, circadian rhythm disorders, restless legs syndrome, and narcolepsy. CONCLUSION: ES and ES-related sleep/wake disorders are commonly encountered in the primary care setting. By providing an educational framework for primary care physicians, the SWG hopes to improve patient outcomes by emphasizing recognition, prompt diagnosis, and appropriate ongoing management of ES and associated sleep/wake disorders.