Localizing somatic symptoms associated with childhood maltreatment.

Childhood maltreatment has been linked to adult somatic symptoms, although this has rarely been examined in daily life. Furthermore, the localization of somatization associated with childhood maltreatment and its subtypes is unknown. This large-scale experience sampling study used body maps to examine the relationships between childhood maltreatment, its subtypes, and the intensity and location of negative somatic sensations in daily life. Participants (N = 2,234; 33% female and 67% male) were part of MyBPLab 2.0, a study conducted using a bespoke mobile phone application. Four categories of childhood maltreatment (emotional abuse, emotional neglect, physical abuse, and physical neglect) were measured using the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire. Using gender-matched human silhouettes, participants indicated the location and intensity of feelings of negative activation in the body. Childhood maltreatment generally and its four measured subtypes were all positively associated with heightened negative activation on both the front and back body maps. For females, total childhood maltreatment was associated with negative activation in the abdomen and lower back, while for males, the association was localized to the lower back. Similarly, each of the four subscales had localized associations with negative activation in the abdomen and lower back in females and lower back in males, except for emotional abuse, which was also associated with negative activation in the abdomen in males. These associations likely reflect increased somatization in individuals exposed to childhood maltreatment, suggesting a role for psychotherapeutic interventions in alleviating associated distress.

Learned trustworthiness does not have the same influence on implicit responses measured via fast periodic visual stimulation as face trustworthiness.

Past research has demonstrated that it is possible to detect implicit responses to face trustworthiness using fast periodic visual stimulation (FPVS). Because people readily retrieve affective associations with faces, the current study investigated whether learned trustworthiness would yield similar responses to face trustworthiness as measured via FPVS. After learning to associate faces with untrustworthy or trustworthy behaviors, participants completed three separate tasks while electroencephalography (EEG) was recorded. In each of these tasks, participants viewed oddball sequences of faces where a single base face was presented repeatedly at a rate of 6 Hz and oddball faces with different identities were presented every fifth face (6 Hz/5 = 1.2 Hz). Providing evidence of learning, the oddball response at 1.2 Hz and its harmonics was stronger for the learned faces compared to novel faces over bilateral occipitotemporal cortex and beyond. In addition, reproducing previous findings with face trustworthiness, we observed a stronger response at 1.2 Hz and its harmonics for sequences with less trustworthy-looking versus trustworthy-looking oddball faces over bilateral occipitotemporal cortex and other sites. However, contrary to our predictions, we did not observe a significant influence of learned trustworthiness on the oddball response. These data indicate that impressions based on learning are treated differently than impressions based on appearance, and they raise questions about the types of design and stimuli that yield responses that are measurable via FPVS.

Implicit responses to face trustworthiness measured with fast periodic visual stimulation.

People rapidly and spontaneously form trustworthiness impressions based on facial appearance. Studies using functional magnetic resonance imaging find that activity in the amygdala and other brain regions tracks with face trustworthiness, even when participants are not explicitly asked to judge face trustworthiness. The current study investigated whether it would be possible to detect implicit responses using another method: fast periodic visual stimulation (FPVS). While scalp electroencephalogram (EEG) was recorded, participants viewed sequences of faces in which a single base face was presented at a rate of 6 Hz and oddball faces with different identities were presented every fifth face (6 Hz/5 = 1.2 Hz). Within a given sequence, the oddball faces were all either less trustworthy-looking or trustworthy-looking. The base face either matched the oddball faces on trustworthiness or did not match, so that the experiment had a 2 (trustworthiness of oddball) × 2 (match between base/oddball faces) design. Although participants' task was unrelated to the faces, the trustworthiness of the oddball faces had a strong influence on the response at 1.2 Hz and its harmonics. There was a stronger response for sequences with less trustworthy- versus trustworthy-looking oddball faces over bilateral occipitotemporal sites, medial occipital sites, and beyond. In contrast, the match in trustworthiness between the base face and the oddball faces had only a minimal effect. The effect of oddball type was observed after a short recording time, suggesting that FPVS offers an efficient means of capturing implicit neural responses to face trustworthiness.

Robust selectivity for faces in the human amygdala in the absence of expressions.

There is a well-established posterior network of cortical regions that plays a central role in face processing and that has been investigated extensively. In contrast, although responsive to faces, the amygdala is not considered a core face-selective region, and its face selectivity has never been a topic of systematic research in human neuroimaging studies. Here, we conducted a large-scale group analysis of fMRI data from 215 participants. We replicated the posterior network observed in prior studies but found equally robust and reliable responses to faces in the amygdala. These responses were detectable in most individual participants, but they were also highly sensitive to the initial statistical threshold and habituated more rapidly than the responses in posterior face-selective regions. A multivariate analysis showed that the pattern of responses to faces across voxels in the amygdala had high reliability over time. Finally, functional connectivity analyses showed stronger coupling between the amygdala and posterior face-selective regions during the perception of faces than during the perception of control visual categories. These findings suggest that the amygdala should be considered a core face-selective region.

Representations of facial identity in the left hemisphere require right hemisphere processing.

A quintessential example of hemispheric specialization in the human brain is that the right hemisphere is specialized for face perception. However, because the visual system is organized contralaterally, what happens when faces appear in the right visual field and are projected to the nonspecialized left hemisphere? We used divided field presentation and fMRI adaptation to test the hypothesis that the left hemisphere can recognize faces, but only with support from the right hemisphere. Consistent with this hypothesis, facial identity adaptation was observed in the left fusiform face area when a face had previously been processed by the right hemisphere, but not when it had only been processed by the left hemisphere. These results imply that facial identity information is transferred from the right hemisphere to the left hemisphere, and that the left hemisphere can represent facial identity but is less efficient at extracting this information by itself.

No effect of value learning on awareness and attention for faces: Evidence from continuous flash suppression and the attentional blink.

It is widely believed that the emotional and movtivational value of social signals, such as faces, influences perception and attention. However, effects reported for stimuli with intrinsic affective value, such as emotional facial expressions, can often be explained by differences in low-level stimulus properties. To rule out such low-level effects, here we used a value-learning procedure, in which faces were associated with different probabilities of monetary gain and loss in a choice game. In three experiments involving 149 participants, we tested the influence of affective valence (win- vs. loss-associated faces) and motivational salience (probability of monetary gain or loss) on visual awareness, attention, and memory. Using continuous flash suppression and rapid serial visual presentation, we found no effects of affective valence or motivational salience on visual awareness of faces. Furthermore, in two experiments, there was no evidence for a modulation of the attentional blink, indicating that acquired emotional and motivational value does not influence attentional priority of faces. However, we found that motivational salience boosted recognition memory, and this effect was particularly pronounced for win-associated faces. These results indicate that acquired affective valence and motivational salience affect only later processing of faces related to memory but do not directly affect visual awareness and attention. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Sorry, baby: Infant faces reach awareness more slowly than adult faces.

Past research has found an attentional bias for positive relative to neutral stimuli, with a greater attentional bias for stimuli that are more motivationally relevant. Baby faces are an example of a motivationally relevant stimulus because they elicit caretaking behaviors. Building on previous work demonstrating that baby faces capture attention, the current study used breaking continuous flash suppression (bCFS) to investigate whether infant faces are prioritized for access to awareness. On each trial of the task, a face was shown to one eye and a rapidly changing Mondrian pattern to the other. Participants were asked to report the location of the face as soon as it emerged from suppression. The faces were either infant or adult faces, presented in upright or inverted orientation. Despite evidence suggesting that infant faces might reach awareness more quickly than adult faces, the opposite was found: Adult faces reached awareness more quickly than infant faces. Moreover, a stronger face inversion effect was observed for adult versus infant faces, indicating that the shorter suppression times for adult faces were due to increased expertise with adult faces. A past bCFS study demonstrated an own-age face effect for young adults, but it left open the possibility that this effect was due to the youthful appearance of the young versus old faces. The current results rule out this possibility and provide further support for the idea that experience with faces of one's own social group facilitates the access of those faces to awareness. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Differential neural responses to faces physically similar to the self as a function of their valence.

Behavioral studies show that people self-enhance across a number of domains, including self-face recognition. We used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to investigate whether response to physical similarity to the self would differ depending on whether the self-face was morphed with a positive (trustworthy) or negative (untrustworthy) novel face. Participants were presented with morphs of their faces (20%, 40%, 50%, 60%, and 80% self) and asked to decide whether the morph looked like them or the other face. Participants were more likely to identify the trustworthy than the untrustworthy morphs as looking like the self. Moreover, there were large differences in brain activation to trustworthy and untrustworthy morphs. As similarity of the untrustworthy morphs to the self decreased, the response in a number of regions, including bilateral posterior superior temporal sulcus/inferior parietal lobule, right inferior frontal gyrus, and bilateral middle/inferior temporal gyrus, increased. In contrast, there was little evidence for changes in activation as a function of the similarity to trustworthy faces. That is, these regions seemed to differentiate between the self and untrustworthy faces to a much greater extent than between the self and trustworthy faces, despite the fact that the task did not demand evaluation of the faces. The findings suggest that comparing the self to others who are viewed as positive versus negative triggers different psychological processes.

Generalization of affective learning about faces to perceptually similar faces.

Different individuals have different (and different-looking) significant others, friends, and foes. The objective of this study was to investigate whether these social face environments can shape individual face preferences. First, participants learned to associate faces with positive, neutral, or negative behaviors. Then, they evaluated morphs combining novel faces with the learned faces. The morphs (65% and 80% novel faces) were within the categorical boundary of the novel faces: They were perceived as those faces in a preliminary study. Moreover, a second preliminary study showed that following the learning, the morphs' categorization as similar to the learned faces was indistinguishable from the categorization of actual novel faces. Nevertheless, in the main experiment, participants evaluated morphs of "positive" faces more positively than morphs of "negative" faces. This learning generalization effect increased as a function of the similarity of the novel faces to the learned faces. The findings suggest that general learning mechanisms based on similarity can account for idiosyncratic face preferences.

Familiarization increases face individuation measured with fast periodic visual stimulation.

People are better at recognizing familiar versus unfamiliar faces. The current study investigated whether familiarity would lead to a larger face individuation response as measured via fast periodic visual stimulation (FPVS). While electroencephalography (EEG) was recorded, participants viewed oddball sequences of faces made up of more versus less familiarized faces. In each sequence, a single base face was repeated at a rate of 6 Hz and oddball faces with different identities were presented every fifth face (6 Hz/5 = 1.2 Hz). As in previous studies, significant face individuation responses were observed at 1.2 Hz and its harmonics, with the strongest responses located over right occipito-temporal electrode sites. Despite a relatively minimal learning manipulation, the face individuation response over right occipito-temporal sites was stronger for more versus less familiarized faces. These results suggest that the fast-periodic visual oddball paradigm offers a promising means for investigating face learning.

The influence of personality on neural mechanisms of observational fear and reward learning.

Fear and reward learning can occur through direct experience or observation. Both channels can enhance survival or create maladaptive behavior. We used fMRI to isolate neural mechanisms of observational fear and reward learning and investigate whether neural response varied according to individual differences in neuroticism and extraversion. Participants learned object-emotion associations by observing a woman respond with fearful (or neutral) and happy (or neutral) facial expressions to novel objects. The amygdala-hippocampal complex was active when learning the object-fear association, and the hippocampus was active when learning the object-happy association. After learning, objects were presented alone; amygdala activity was greater for the fear (vs. neutral) and happy (vs. neutral) associated object. Importantly, greater amygdala-hippocampal activity during fear (vs. neutral) learning predicted better recognition of learned objects on a subsequent memory test. Furthermore, personality modulated neural mechanisms of learning. Neuroticism positively correlated with neural activity in the amygdala and hippocampus during fear (vs. neutral) learning. Low extraversion/high introversion was related to faster behavioral predictions of the fearful and neutral expressions during fear learning. In addition, low extraversion/high introversion was related to greater amygdala activity during happy (vs. neutral) learning, happy (vs. neutral) object recognition, and faster reaction times for predicting happy and neutral expressions during reward learning. These findings suggest that neuroticism is associated with an increased sensitivity in the neural mechanism for fear learning which leads to enhanced encoding of fear associations, and that low extraversion/high introversion is related to enhanced conditionability for both fear and reward learning.

Robust effects of affective person learning on evaluation of faces.

People form impressions of others from multiple sources of information. Facial appearance is one such source and judgments based on facial appearance are made after minimal exposure to faces. A more reliable source of information is affective person learning based on others' past actions. Here we investigated whether the effects of such appearance-independent learning on face evaluation emerge after rapid face exposure, a response deadline procedure, and a lack of explicit recognition of the faces. In three experiments, participants learned to associate novel faces with negative and positive behaviors, and then evaluated the faces presented on their own, without the behaviors. Even after extremely brief exposures (e.g., 35 ms), participants evaluated faces previously associated with negative behaviors more negatively than those associated with positive behaviors (Experiment 1). The learning effect persisted when participants were asked to evaluate briefly presented faces before a response deadline (Experiment 2), although the effect was diminished. Finally, although this learning effect increased as a function of face recognition (Experiment 3), it was present with only minimal recognition, suggesting that participants do not need to deliberately retrieve behavioral information for it to influence face evaluation. Together, the findings suggest that person learning unrelated to facial appearance is a powerful determinant of face evaluation. (PsycINFO Database Record

No impact of affective person knowledge on visual awareness: Evidence from binocular rivalry and continuous flash suppression.

Stimuli with intrinsic emotional value, like emotional faces, and stimuli associated with reward and punishment are often prioritized in visual awareness relative to neutral stimuli. Recently, Anderson, Siegel, Bliss-Moreau, and Barrett (2011) demonstrated that simply associating a face with affective knowledge can also influence visual awareness. Using a binocular rivalry task (BR), where a face was shown to one eye and a house to the other, they found that faces paired with negative versus neutral and positive behaviors dominated visual awareness. We were interested in whether faces associated with negative information would also be capable of reaching awareness more quickly in the first place. To test this, we set out to replicate Anderson and colleagues' finding and to examine whether it would extend to breaking continuous flash suppression (b-CFS), a technique where a dynamic mask shown to one eye initially suppresses the stimulus shown to the other eye. Participants completed a learning task followed by BR and b-CFS tasks, in counterbalanced order. Across both tasks, faces associated with negative behaviors were treated no differently from faces associated with neutral or positive behaviors. However, faces associated with any type of behavior were prioritized in awareness over novel faces. These findings indicate that while familiarity influences conscious perception, the influence of affective person knowledge on visual awareness is more circumscribed than previously thought. (PsycINFO Database Record

Moving while Black: Intergroup attitudes influence judgments of speed.

Four experiments examined whether intergroup attitudes shape the speed with which Blacks are thought to be moving. When participants rated the speed of Black and White faces that appeared to be moving toward them, greater intergroup anxiety was associated with judging Black targets as moving more slowly relative to White targets (Experiments 1a and 1b). Experiment 2 demonstrated that this effect occurs only for approaching targets. Experiment 3 showed that this slowing bias occurs, at least in part, because of the perceived duration of time each image was moving. Such a slowing bias is consistent with the time expansion and perceptual slowing reported by people who experienced threatening events.

Representations of individuals in ventral temporal cortex defined by faces and biographies.

The fusiform gyrus responds more strongly to faces than to other categories of objects. This response could reflect either categorical detection of faces or recognition of particular facial identities. Recent fMRI studies have attempted to address the question of what information is encoded in these regions, but have reported mixed results. We tested whether the creation of richer identity representations via training on visual and social information, and the use of an adaptation design, would reveal more robust representations of these identities in ventral temporal cortex. Examining the patterns of activation across voxels in bilateral fusiform gyri, we identified unique patterns for particular identities. Attaching distinctive biographical information to identities did not increase the strength of these representations, but did produce a grouping effect: faces associated with the same amount of biographical information were represented more similarly to each other. These results are consistent with the possibility that identity exemplars are represented in posterior visual areas best known for their role in representing categorical information, and suggest that these areas may be sensitive to some forms of non-visual information, including from the social domain.

The influence of combined cognitive plus social-cognitive training on amygdala response during face emotion recognition in schizophrenia.

Both cognitive and social-cognitive deficits impact functional outcome in schizophrenia. Cognitive remediation studies indicate that targeted cognitive and/or social-cognitive training improves behavioral performance on trained skills. However, the neural effects of training in schizophrenia and their relation to behavioral gains are largely unknown. This study tested whether a 50-h intervention which included both cognitive and social-cognitive training would influence neural mechanisms that support social ccognition. Schizophrenia participants completed a computer-based intervention of either auditory-based cognitive training (AT) plus social-cognition training (SCT) (N=11) or non-specific computer games (CG) (N=11). Assessments included a functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) task of facial emotion recognition, and behavioral measures of cognition, social cognition, and functional outcome. The fMRI results showed the predicted group-by-time interaction. Results were strongest for emotion recognition of happy, surprise and fear: relative to CG participants, AT+SCT participants showed a neural activity increase in bilateral amygdala, right putamen and right medial prefrontal cortex. Across all participants, pre-to-post intervention neural activity increase in these regions predicted behavioral improvement on an independent emotion perception measure (MSCEIT: Perceiving Emotions). Among AT+SCT participants alone, neural activity increase in right amygdala predicted behavioral improvement in emotion perception. The findings indicate that combined cognition and social-cognition training improves neural systems that support social-cognition skills.

Neural activity during emotion recognition after combined cognitive plus social cognitive training in schizophrenia.

Cognitive remediation training has been shown to improve both cognitive and social cognitive deficits in people with schizophrenia, but the mechanisms that support this behavioral improvement are largely unknown. One hypothesis is that intensive behavioral training in cognition and/or social cognition restores the underlying neural mechanisms that support targeted skills. However, there is little research on the neural effects of cognitive remediation training. This study investigated whether a 50 h (10-week) remediation intervention which included both cognitive and social cognitive training would influence neural function in regions that support social cognition. Twenty-two stable, outpatient schizophrenia participants were randomized to a treatment condition consisting of auditory-based cognitive training (AT) [Brain Fitness Program/auditory module ~60 min/day] plus social cognition training (SCT) which was focused on emotion recognition [~5-15 min per day] or a placebo condition of non-specific computer games (CG) for an equal amount of time. Pre and post intervention assessments included an fMRI task of positive and negative facial emotion recognition, and standard behavioral assessments of cognition, emotion processing, and functional outcome. There were no significant intervention-related improvements in general cognition or functional outcome. fMRI results showed the predicted group-by-time interaction. Specifically, in comparison to CG, AT+SCT participants had a greater pre-to-post intervention increase in postcentral gyrus activity during emotion recognition of both positive and negative emotions. Furthermore, among all participants, the increase in postcentral gyrus activity predicted behavioral improvement on a standardized test of emotion processing (MSCEIT: Perceiving Emotions). Results indicate that combined cognition and social cognition training impacts neural mechanisms that support social cognition skills.

Can I trust you? Negative affective priming influences social judgments in schizophrenia.

Successful social interactions rely on the ability to make accurate judgments based on social cues as well as the ability to control the influence of internal or external affective information on those judgments. Prior research suggests that individuals with schizophrenia misinterpret social stimuli and this misinterpretation contributes to impaired social functioning. We tested the hypothesis that for people with schizophrenia, social judgments are abnormally influenced by affective information. Twenty-three patients with schizophrenia and 35 healthy control participants rated the trustworthiness of faces following the presentation of neutral, negative (threat-related), or positive affective primes. Results showed that all participants rated faces following negative affective primes as less trustworthy than faces following neutral or positive primes. Importantly, this effect was significantly more pronounced for participants with schizophrenia, suggesting that schizophrenia may be characterized by an exaggerated influence of negative affective information on social judgment. Furthermore, the extent that the negative affective prime influenced trustworthiness judgments was significantly associated with patients' severity of positive symptoms, particularly feelings of persecution. These findings suggest that for people with schizophrenia, negative affective information contributes to an interpretive bias, consistent with paranoid ideation, when judging the trustworthiness of others. This bias may contribute to social impairments in schizophrenia.

Neural activity to a partner's facial expression predicts self-regulation after conflict.

BACKGROUND: Failure to self-regulate after an interpersonal conflict can result in persistent negative mood and maladaptive behaviors. Research indicates that lateral prefrontal cortex (LPFC) activity is related to emotion regulation in response to laboratory-based affective challenges, such as viewing emotional pictures. This suggests that compromised LPFC function may be a risk factor for mood and behavior problems after an interpersonal conflict. However, it remains unclear whether LPFC activity to a laboratory-based affective challenge predicts self-regulation in real life. METHODS: We investigated whether LPFC activity to a laboratory-based affective challenge (negative facial expressions of a partner) predicts self-regulation after a real-life affective challenge (interpersonal conflict). During a functional magnetic resonance imaging scan, healthy, adult participants in committed relationships (n = 27) viewed positive, negative, and neutral facial expressions of their partners. In a three-week online daily diary, participants reported conflict occurrence, level of negative mood, rumination, and substance use. RESULTS: LPFC activity in response to the laboratory-based affective challenge predicted self-regulation after an interpersonal conflict in daily life. When there was no interpersonal conflict, LPFC activity was not related to mood or behavior the next day. However, when an interpersonal conflict did occur, ventral LPFC (VLPFC) activity predicted mood and behavior the next day, such that lower VLPFC activity was related to higher levels of negative mood, rumination, and substance use. CONCLUSIONS: Low LPFC function may be a vulnerability and high LPFC function may be a protective factor for the development of mood and behavior problems after an interpersonal stressor.

Neural activity during social signal perception correlates with self-reported empathy.

Empathy is an important component of human relationships, yet the neural mechanisms that facilitate empathy are unclear. The broad construct of empathy incorporates both cognitive and affective components. Cognitive empathy includes mentalizing skills such as perspective-taking. Affective empathy consists of the affect produced in response to someone else's emotional state, a process which is facilitated by simulation or "mirroring." Prior evidence shows that mentalizing tasks engage a neural network which includes the temporoparietal junction, superior temporal sulcus, and medial prefrontal cortex. On the other hand, simulation tasks engage the fronto-parietal mirror neuron system (MNS) which includes the inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) and the somotosensory related cortex (SRC). Here, we tested whether neural activity in these two neural networks was related to self-reports of cognitive and affective empathy in daily life. Participants viewed social scenes in which the shift of direction of attention of a character did or did not change the character's mental and emotional state. As expected, the task robustly activated both mentalizing and MNS networks. We found that when detecting the character's change in mental and emotional state, neural activity in both networks is strongly related to cognitive empathy. Specifically, neural activity in the IFG, SRC, and STS were related to cognitive empathy. Activity in the precentral gyrus was related to affective empathy. The findings suggest that both simulation and mentalizing networks contribute to multiple components of empathy.