The Strong, Silent (Gender) Type: The Strong Black Woman Ideal, Self-Silencing, and Sexual Assertiveness in Black College Women.

Women are socialized to endorse femininity scripts mandating that they prioritize others' needs and engage in self-silencing behaviors. Further, Black women may also endorse the strong Black woman (SBW) ideal, by which they are expected to selflessly meet the needs of their family and community and, as such, may embrace self-silencing in their interpersonal relationships. In a sample of 597 Black undergraduate and graduate college women, we tested whether: (1) self-silencing and SBW ideal endorsement would be independently, inversely associated with three dimensions of sexual assertiveness-communication assertiveness, refusal assertiveness, and pleasure-focused assertiveness; and (2) the association between self-silencing and sexual assertiveness would be stronger among Black women who endorse the SBW ideal. Correlational and regression analyses revealed that self-silencing was negatively linked to all dimensions of sexual assertiveness; SBW ideal endorsement was associated with lower levels of communication and pleasure-focused assertiveness. As expected, SBW ideal endorsement moderated the association between Black women's engagement in self-silencing and two dimensions of sexual assertiveness. Self-silencing was associated with less communication and pleasure-focused assertiveness regardless of their level of SBW endorsement. Findings highlight the complexities of Black women's desire to fulfill expectations to be strong, assertive, and/or compliant and silent. Interventions to promote Black women's sexual health should address sexual assertiveness and feminine silencing norms.

Digital White Racial Socialization: Social Media and the Case of Whiteness.

The Internet has become a ubiquitous central element in the lives of adolescents. In this conceptual paper, we focus on digital white racial socialization (D-WRS), arguing: (1) for an expanded conceptualization of WRS as doings, and (2) that social media may be changing processes of WRS through an extension of traditional settings and through the creation of unique social contexts. We highlight the uniqueness of social media contexts due to the designed normalization of whiteness, weak-tie racism, social media affordances, and racialized pedagogical zones allowing adolescents to practice doing race. We introduce a conceptual framework for D-WRS and end with an expressed need for conceptually guided research on the multidimensional relationship between social media and WRS processes.

Beyond Objectification: Understanding the Correlates and Consequences of Sexualization for Black and White Adolescent Girls.

Although objectification theory posits negative consequences of self-objectification for adolescent girls, few studies have tested how objectification and sexualization contribute to mental health for youth of color. Accordingly, the current study explores the relations among body surveillance, enjoyment of sexualization, and mental health for a sample of 473 Black and White adolescent girls (Mage = 15.21, SD = 1.43). As expected, body surveillance and enjoyment of sexualization were associated with various forms of diminished well-being. Race moderated two of these links, with Black girls who reported higher levels of body surveillance also reporting higher levels of depression and hostility compared with their White peers. Future work should examine the implications of enjoyment of sexualization for youth of color.

Risky, Dramatic, and Unrealistic: Reality Television Portrayals of Pregnancy and Childbirth and their Effects on Women's Fear and Self-Efficacy.

Because portrayals of pregnancy and childbirth on reality television (TV) often highlight risk, drama, and the use of medical interventions, it is possible that exposure to this content could influence women's fear of childbirth and childbirth self-efficacy. To test this question, we conducted an experiment among 213 undergraduate women who were assigned to view a video clip of either medicalized births from reality TV, midwife-attended births from reality TV, or a neutral childbirth education clip. Findings indicated that childbirth attitudes did vary across conditions, with participants in the medicalized condition reporting the highest fear of childbirth and lowest childbirth self-efficacy. Participants' feelings about potential pregnancy also varied depending on the clip viewed. Because the likelihood of witnessing a birth in person before becoming pregnant is lower than in previous years, these findings have significant implications for how women form their understandings of pregnancy and childbirth.

Downstream consequences of pubertal timing for young women's body beliefs.

INTRODUCTION: Puberty is a critical biopsychosocial event that has long-term consequences for adolescents' behavior and well-being. Research has shown that developing earlier than one's peers may worsen adolescent girls' body image, in part due to weight redistribution and increases in adiposity resulting from pubertal development. However, research has yet to examine if pubertal timing is associated with girls' body beliefs related to self-objectification, self-sexualization, and positive body image beyond the adolescent years. We address that issue here. METHODS: Participants were 287 undergraduate White women (Mage = 18.62, SDage = 0.93) from the United States who completed surveys containing a retrospective report of pubertal timing and several scales assessing their current body beliefs. RESULTS: Regression analyses demonstrated that earlier pubertal timing was linked to greater body surveillance, greater sex appeal self-worth, and less body appreciation, but not to body shame or enjoyment of sexualization, which were negatively related to age. CONCLUSIONS: This study provides preliminary evidence that pubertal timing has downstream consequences for a variety of women's body beliefs. However, older women reported less body shame and less enjoyment of sexualization than younger women, suggesting possible age (and not puberty-) related developmental trends in these two body beliefs. These findings highlight a need for future work with larger, more diverse samples and longitudinal data.

Gender matters: Experiences and consequences of digital dating abuse victimization in adolescent dating relationships.

Digital dating abuse (DDA) behaviors include the use of digital media to monitor, control, threaten, harass, pressure, or coerce a dating partner. In this study, 703 high school students reported on the frequency of DDA victimization, whether they were upset by these incidents, and how they responded. Results suggest that although both girls and boys experienced DDA at similar rates of frequency (with the exception of sexual coercion), girls reported that they were more upset by these behaviors. Girls also expressed more negative emotional responses to DDA victimization than boys. Although DDA is potentially harmful for all youth, gender matters. These findings suggest that the experience and consequences of DDA may be particularly detrimental for girls.

Controlling images: How awareness of group stereotypes affects Black women's well-being.

This paper presents research exploring how stereotypes that are simultaneously racialized and gendered affect Black women. We investigated the mental and physical health consequences of Black women's awareness that others hold these stereotypes and tested whether this association was moderated by the centrality of racial identity. A structural equation model tested among 609 young Black women revealed that metastereotype awareness (i.e., being aware that others hold negative stereotypes of one's group) predicted negative mental health outcomes (e.g., depression, anxiety, hostility), which, in turn, predicted diminished self-care behaviors and greater drug and alcohol use for coping. High racial centrality exacerbated the negative association between metastereotype awareness and self-care. We discuss implications of the findings for clinical practice and for approaches to research using intersectionality frameworks. (PsycINFO Database Record

The impact of men's magazines on adolescent boys' objectification and courtship beliefs.

Although much attention concerning the potential impact of sexualized media has focused on girls and women, less is known about how this content effects boys' perceptions of women and courtship. Accordingly, the current three-wave panel study investigated whether exposure to sexualizing magazines predicts adolescent boys' (N = 592) sexually objectifying notions of women and their beliefs about feminine courtship strategies. The results indicated that when boys consumed sexualizing magazines more often, they expressed more gender-stereotypical beliefs about feminine courtship strategies over time. This association was mediated by boys' objectification of women. The possibility of a reciprocal relation whereby beliefs about courtship strategies predict future consumption of sexualizing magazines was also explored but received no support. Discussion focuses on effects of sexualizing media on boys, and supports future research to build on multidisciplinary knowledge.

A short-form drama series created for the digital media environment: A randomised controlled trial exploring effects on girls' body satisfaction, acceptance of appearance diversity, and appearance-related internalised racism.

'Edutainment' micro-interventions are a scalable public health strategy that can challenge media-related body image pressures and race- and weight- based stigma. This study evaluated the impact of viewing a brief, theoretically-informed, short-form drama episode on Black and non-Black adolescent girls' body image, acceptance of diversity of appearance (assessed by acceptance of an individual in a larger body and a Black individual), and appearance-related internalised racism (among Black girls only). The fictional drama depicted characters of diverse body sizes and race/ethnicities, with each episode focusing on a risk or protective factor for body image concerns among adolescent girls (e.g., appearance-related teasing and conversations). Participants (N = 686; 50.4 % Black, 49.6 % non-Black) aged 13-18 (Mage = 15.72 years) were randomly allocated to view either the first episode of this series (focused on social media's unrealistic appearance ideals and strategies to resist pressures) or a non-body-image-related control video. Findings revealed no significant differences in body satisfaction between conditions but significant improvements in the acceptance of appearance diversity among all girls who viewed the body image episode. Black girls who viewed this episode experienced significant improvements to appearance-related internalised racism. Edutainment micro-interventions constitute a promising avenue for promoting acceptance of appearance diversity and reducing appearance-related internalised racism.

Primping, performing, and policing: Social media use and self-sexualization among U.S. White, Black, and Asian-American adolescent girls.

Objectification theorists argue that routine sexual objectification, experienced interpersonally and via the media, encourages women and adolescent girls to value their external appearance and sexiness above other bodily experiences and competencies. Commonly, tests of this theory have linked exposure to sexualizing media content (i.e., TV, music videos, social media) to self-objectification and subsequently to consequences such as disordered eating among predominantly White samples. Do these analyses extend to U.S. girls of color and to broader well-being consequences? Using structural equation modeling, we tested theorized connections among 884 adolescent girls aged 13-18, including 391 White girls, 248 Black girls, and 245 Asian American girls. Participants completed surveys assessing their use of several social media platforms, social media engagement, self-sexualization, mental health symptoms, self-esteem, and body shame. We also examined age, racial identity, and racial composition of peer group as moderators. The model worked as expected for the full sample, with social media use and engagement predicting greater self-sexualization, which in turn was associated with diminished well-being. However, the model fit was worse for the White girls than for girls of color, and some constructs operated differently. Implications for future research with girls and possible media interventions are discussed.

Living Life as the Bachelor/ette: Contributions of Diverse Television Genres to Adolescents' Acceptance of Gendered Sexual Scripts.

Gendered sexual scripts (GSS) reflect stereotypes about the gender-specific behaviors expected in romantic and sexual relationships. Television may be a powerful contributor to these scripts for adolescents because of its stereotypical portrayals and prominence in their lives. However, although television use is a consistent predictor of adults' GSS, few studies have tested these relations among adolescents, especially U.S. adolescents, and most report null results. Across two studies, we sought to decipher these patterns, investigating whether U.S. adolescents' regular exposure to diverse TV genres predicted their acceptance of GSS. In Study 1, we surveyed 574 adolescents aged 13-18, testing whether their viewing of three TV genres (scripted programming, reality TV, music videos) was associated with their support of GSS, as measured by four scales. In study 2, we surveyed a national sample of 398 adolescents, testing whether their viewing of four TV genres was associated with their support of GSS. For both studies, viewing of reality TV was associated with stronger support of each measure of GSS; there were few contributions of other genres. Gender moderated one interaction in each study, demonstrating stronger contributions for girls. Implications are discussed for media literacy programs and for teen dating abuse.

The Roots and Fruits of Masculinity: Social Antecedents and Sexual Relationship Consequences of Young Men's Adherence to Masculine Norms.

On a longitudinal sample of 181 emerging adult men (Mage = 19.36, SDage = 1.48), we analyzed how diverse socializing agents (fathers, male peers, magazines, music videos, TV dramas, and TV sitcoms) related to adherence to masculine norms, and how norm adherence related to men's interpersonal sexual cognitions and behaviors (romantic relationship self-efficacy, sexual self-esteem, and alcohol-primed sexual encounters). We found that male peers, magazines, and music videos related to masculine norm adherence one year later, and that norm adherence predicted increased alcohol-primed sexual encounters. We followed this up with analyses investigating the role of specific masculine norms and found unique socialization and outcome paths for different masculine norms. For example, analyses indicated that male peers were positively related to norms of winning, power over women, playboy attitudes, and risk-taking, and that playboy attitudes, risk-taking, emotional control, and self-reliance predicted lower levels of romantic relationship self-efficacy. Interestingly, sitcom viewing related to lower adherence to masculine norms including heterosexual presentation and having power over women. Findings identify the unique influence of male peers, magazines, and music videos on young men's sexual cognitions and behaviors and highlight how combining different socialization agents in one model is key to identifying these unique patterns of socialization and their consequences.

Differentiating contributions of self-objectification and self-sexualization to young women's sexual agency.

Findings consistently illustrate the negative association between women's sexual objectification and their sexual functioning. At the same time, some scholars argue that sexualized self-presentation may be a way to embrace one's sexuality and may signify empowerment. To date, no studies have explicitly explored the potential differential contributions of self-objectification and self-sexualization to multiple aspects of women's sexual agency. Towards this end, we surveyed 556 undergraduate women to examine how body surveillance, self-objectification, and self-sexualization differentially predict women's sexual assertiveness, sexual satisfaction, feelings of entitlement to sexual pleasure, condom use self-efficacy, and sexual esteem. Path analysis demonstrated consistent negative links between body surveillance, one behavioral manifestation of self-objectification, and sexual agency outcomes, but revealed both negative and positive links between measures of sexualization and sexual agency. This complex set of associations highlights the value of studying self-objectification and self-sexualization both in tandem and separately, so that researchers can develop a better understanding of the implications of each for women's sexual agency.

The Association Between Stereotypical Gender and Dating Beliefs and Digital Dating Abuse Perpetration in Adolescent Dating Relationships.

Digital media have become a significant context for adolescent dating relationships. As the use of social media and mobile phones increases, so do concerns that these media might be a context for "digital dating abuse" (DDA), or the use of digital media to harass, pressure, threaten, coerce, or monitor a dating partner. Although DDA has been shown to be common in adolescent dating relationships, little is known about the predictors of DDA perpetration or the role of stereotypical gender and dating beliefs in shaping these behaviors. This survey study of 703 high school students with dating experience investigated the role of gender beliefs in DDA perpetration using structural equation modeling. The survey included items pertaining to participants' digital media use, stereotypical gender and dating beliefs, and three types of DDA perpetration. Girls reported more frequent perpetration of some types of DDA, and boys expressed greater endorsement of stereotypical gender and dating beliefs. The data supported our hypothesized models, such that endorsement of stereotypical beliefs was associated with different types of DDA perpetration for girls and boys. Higher endorsement of stereotypical beliefs was related to perpetration of digital monitoring and control behaviors for girls, and to directly aggressive and hostile digital behaviors for boys. These patterns align with stereotypical gender roles. Associations with sexually coercive digital behaviors for both girls and boys are discussed. This study suggests that beyond the gender of the perpetrator, societal beliefs about gender and dating may shape the problematic use of digital media in dating relationships.

"Pretty hurts": Acceptance of hegemonic feminine beauty ideals and reduced sexual well-being among Black women.

Although women are expected to idealize and achieve hegemonic feminine beauty standards such as being slender and lighter skinned, few studies have examined how women's investment in achieving these restrictive feminine appearance ideals may influence their sexual attitudes and behaviors. Even less is known about Black women. We surveyed 640 Black college women to test hypotheses that endorsement of hegemonic beauty ideals would be positively associated with four dimensions of negative sexual affect (sexual guilt, shame, emotional distancing, and self-consciousness) and negatively associated with two dimensions of sexual agency (sexual assertiveness and satisfaction). Correlation and regression analyses showed that hegemonic beauty ideal acceptance was linked with greater sexual guilt, shame, emotional distancing, and sexual self-consciousness in addition to lower levels of sexual assertiveness and satisfaction. Findings highlight how endorsing restrictive, hegemonic standards of beauty is associated with Black women's reduced sexual affect and sexual agency.

Following Their Lead? Connecting Mainstream Media Use to Black Women's Gender Beliefs and Sexual Agency.

Although media exposure has emerged as a significant predictor of consumers' sexual decision making, less is known about the mechanisms involved and about the dynamics of these relations for adults, in general, and for African American adults, in particular. To address these gaps, we used structural equation modeling (SEM) to test whether heterosexual Black women's endorsement of traditional gender and sexual roles mediates connections between their consumption of four mainstream media (music videos, reality TV programming, movies, and women's magazines) and three dimensions of their sexual well-being (sexual assertiveness, sexual inhibition, and sexual deception). We surveyed 594 heterosexual Black women aged 17 to 55 who were undergraduate and graduate students at two universities (one historically Black university and one predominantly White institution). Results confirmed expectations, such that greater media consumption was associated with greater support of traditional gender and sexual roles; in turn, endorsing these roles predicted lower levels of sexual assertiveness, greater sexual inhibition, and more frequent use of sexual dishonesty to retain a partner. We discuss implications of these findings for psychology and sexuality research and also for Black women's sexual relationships.

Bros Will Be Bros? The Effect of Fraternity Membership on Perceived Culpability for Sexual Assault.

To examine the link between fraternity membership and sexual assault perpetration, we used an experimental design to assess the role of perceptions in an ambiguous sexual assault scenario. Undergraduates (N = 408) were randomly assigned to either an experimental group where the perpetrator is a fraternity member or a control group where no fraternity information is given. Males rated perpetrators as less guilty and victims as more culpable when the perpetrator was a fraternity member, suggesting that sexual violence may be reinforced among fraternity members as they are both more likely to perpetrate sexual assault and less likely to be blamed.

Contributions of Mainstream Sexual Media Exposure to Sexual Attitudes, Perceived Peer Norms, and Sexual Behavior: A Meta-Analysis.

PURPOSE: Decades of research have examined the impact of exposure to nonexplicit portrayals of sexual content in media. There is only one meta-analysis on this topic, which suggests that exposure to "sexy media" has little to no effect on sexual behavior. There are a number of limitations to the existing meta-analysis, and the purpose of this updated meta-analysis was to examine associations between exposure to sexual media and users' attitudes and sexual behavior. METHODS: A thorough literature search was conducted to find relevant articles. Each study was coded for associations between exposure to sexual media and one of six outcomes including sexual attitudes (permissive attitudes, peer norms, and rape myths) and sexual behaviors (general sexual behavior, age of sexual initiation, and risky sexual behavior). RESULTS: Results from 59 studies, involving 394 effect sizes, revealed that exposure to sexual media had a small but significant effect on both sexual attitudes and behaviors; the effect size was comparable to other media effects meta-analyses. Effects were stronger for adolescents than emerging adults. In addition, effects were stronger for boys than girls and for white participants compared with black participants. CONCLUSION: This study suggests that exposure to nonexplicit sexual media is associated with both sexual attitudes and behavior, particularly during adolescence. Implications for parents, media producers, and researchers are discussed.

The role of the media in body image concerns among women: a meta-analysis of experimental and correlational studies.

Research suggests that exposure to mass media depicting the thin-ideal body may be linked to body image disturbance in women. This meta-analysis examined experimental and correlational studies testing the links between media exposure to women's body dissatisfaction, internalization of the thin ideal, and eating behaviors and beliefs with a sample of 77 studies that yielded 141 effect sizes. The mean effect sizes were small to moderate (ds = -.28, -.39, and -.30, respectively). Effects for some outcome variables were moderated by publication year and study design. The findings support the notion that exposure to media images depicting the thin-ideal body is related to body image concerns for women.

Examining the unique contribution of body appreciation to heterosexual women's sexual agency.

Although numerous studies demonstrate links between negative body image and sexual well-being, recent research has emphasized studying the positive aspects of these constructs. The current study built upon this prior research by examining the association between body appreciation and sexual agency among a US community sample of 355 heterosexual women aged 18-40. This study also examined whether body appreciation is uniquely associated with sexual agency above and beyond levels of self-objectification. Regression analyses demonstrated that women who reported greater body appreciation also reported greater condom use self-efficacy, sexual satisfaction, sexual assertiveness, and feelings of entitlement to sexual pleasure, and lower levels of body self-consciousness during intimacy. These findings remained consistent even when self-objectification was entered into the model as a covariate. Results highlight the importance of studying how body appreciation may promote women's sexual agency.