Innately activated TLR4 signal in the nucleus accumbens is sustained by CRF amplification loop and regulates impulsivity.

Cognitive impulsivity is a heritable trait believed to represent the behavior that defines the volition to initiate alcohol drinking. We have previously shown that a neuronal Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) signal located in the central amygdala (CeA) and ventral tegmental area (VTA) controls the initiation of binge drinking in alcohol-preferring P rats, and TLR4 expression is upregulated by alcohol-induced corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) at these sites. However, the function of the TLR4 signal in the nucleus accumbens shell (NAc-shell), a site implicated in the control of reward, drug-seeking behavior and impulsivity and the contribution of other signal-associated genes, are still poorly understood. Here we report that P rats have an innately activated TLR4 signal in NAc-shell neurons that co-express the α2 GABAA receptor subunit and CRF prior to alcohol exposure. This signal is not present in non-alcohol drinking NP rats. The TLR4 signal is sustained by a CRF amplification loop, which includes TLR4-mediated CRF upregulation through PKA/CREB activation and CRF-mediated TLR4 upregulation through the CRF type 1 receptor (CRFR1) and the MAPK/ERK pathway. NAc-shell Infusion of a neurotropic, non-replicating herpes simplex virus vector for TLR4-specific small interfering RNA (pHSVsiTLR4) inhibits TLR4 expression and cognitive impulsivity, implicating the CRF-amplified TLR4 signal in impulsivity regulation.

Early life stress is a risk factor for excessive alcohol drinking and impulsivity in adults and is mediated via a CRF/GABA(A) mechanism.

Childhood stress and trauma are associated with substance use disorders in adulthood, but the neurological changes that confer increased vulnerability are largely unknown. In this study, maternal separation (MS) stress, restricted to the pre-weaning period, was used as a model to study mechanisms of protracted effects of childhood stress/traumatic experiences on binge drinking and impulsivity. Using an operant self-administration model of binge drinking and a delay discounting assay to measure impulsive-like behavior, we report that early life stress due to MS facilitated acquisition of binge drinking and impulsivity during adulthood in rats. Previous studies have shown heightened levels of corticotropin releasing factor (CRF) after MS, and here, we add that MS increased expression levels of GABA(A) α2 subunit in central stress circuits. To investigate the precise role of these circuits in regulating impulsivity and binge drinking, the CRF1 receptor antagonist antalarmin and the novel GABA(A) α2 subunit ligand 3-PBC were infused into the central amygdala (CeA) and medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC). Antalarmin and 3-PBC at each site markedly reduced impulsivity and produced profound reductions on binge-motivated alcohol drinking, without altering responding for sucrose. Furthermore, whole-cell patch-clamp studies showed that low concentrations of 3-PBC directly reversed the effect of relatively high concentrations of ethanol on α2ß3γ2 GABA(A) receptors, by a benzodiazepine site-independent mechanism. Together, our data provide strong evidence that maternal separation, i.e. early life stress, is a risk factor for binge drinking, and is linked to impulsivity, another key risk factor for excessive alcohol drinking. We further show that pharmacological manipulation of CRF and GABA receptor signaling is effective to reverse binge drinking and impulsive-like behavior in MS rats. These results provide novel insights into the role of the brain stress systems in the development of impulsivity and excessive alcohol consumption.

Triple monoamine uptake inhibitors demonstrate a pharmacologic association between excessive drinking and impulsivity in high-alcohol-preferring (HAP) mice.

Approximately 30% of current drinkers in the United States drink excessively, and are referred to as problem/hazardous drinkers. These individuals, who may not meet criteria for alcohol abuse or dependence, comprise binge, heavy drinkers, or both. Given their high prevalence, interventions that reduce the risk of binge and heavy drinking have important public health implications. Impulsivity has been repeatedly associated with excessive drinking in the clinical literature. As impulsivity is correlated with, and may play a critical role in, the initiation and maintenance of excessive drinking, this behavior may be an important target for therapeutic intervention. Hence, a better understanding of pharmacological treatments capable of attenuating excessive drinking and impulsivity may markedly improve clinical outcomes. The high-alcohol-preferring (HAP) mice represent a strong rodent model to study the relationship between impulsivity and excessive alcohol drinking, as recent evidence indicates they consume high levels of alcohol throughout their active cycle and are innately impulsive. Using this model, the present study demonstrates that the triple monoamine uptake inhibitors (TUIs) amitifadine and DOV 102, 677 effectively attenuate binge drinking, heavy drinking assessed via a 24-hour free-choice assay, and impulsivity measured by the delay discounting procedure. In contrast, 3-PBC, a GABA-A α1 preferring ligand with mixed agonist-antagonist properties, attenuates excessive drinking without affecting impulsivity. These findings suggest that in HAP mice, monoamine pathways may predominate as a common mechanism underlying impulsivity and excessive drinking, while the GABAergic system may be more salient in regulating excessive drinking. We further propose that TUIs such as amitifadine and DOV 102, 677 may be used to treat the co-occurrence of impulsivity and excessive drinking.

Effects of the triple monoamine uptake inhibitor DOV 102,677 on alcohol-motivated responding and antidepressant activity in alcohol-preferring (P) rats.

BACKGROUND: Concurrent inhibitors of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin uptake have been proposed as novel antidepressants. Given the high comorbidity between alcoholism and depression, we evaluated the activity of DOV 102,677 (DOV) on alcohol-maintained responding and performance in the forced swim test (FST), a model of antidepressant (AD) activity, using alcohol-preferring (P) rats. METHODS: Following training to lever press for either alcohol (10% v/v) or sucrose (3, 2%, w/v) on a fixed-ratio 4 (FR4) schedule, DOV (1.56 to 50 mg/kg; PO) was given 25 minutes or 24 hours prior to evaluation. The effects of DOV (12.5 to 50 mg/kg; PO) in the FST were evaluated 25 minutes posttreatment. RESULTS: DOV (6.25 to 50 mg/kg) dose-dependently reduced alcohol-maintained responding by 59 to 88% at 25 minutes posttreatment, without significantly altering sucrose responding. The reduction in alcohol responding (44% at 50 mg/kg) was sustained for up to 120 hours after a single dose. Administration of a single dose of DOV (25, 50 mg/kg) 24 hours before testing suppressed alcohol responding for 48 hours by 59 to 62%. DOV (12.5 to 50 mg/kg) also dose-dependently reduced immobility of P rats in the FST. CONCLUSIONS: DOV produces both prolonged and selective reductions of alcohol-motivated behaviors in P rats. The elimination kinetics of DOV suggests that its long duration of action may be due to an active metabolite. DOV also produced robust AD-like effects in P rats. We propose that DOV may be useful in treating comorbid alcoholism and depression in humans.

The GABAA Receptor α2 Subunit Activates a Neuronal TLR4 Signal in the Ventral Tegmental Area that Regulates Alcohol and Nicotine Abuse.

Alcoholism initiates with episodes of excessive alcohol drinking, known as binge drinking, which is one form of excessive drinking (NIAAA Newsletter, 2004) that is related to impulsivity and anxiety (Ducci et al., 2007; Edenberg et al., 2004) and is also predictive of smoking status. The predisposition of non-alcohol exposed subjects to initiate binge drinking is controlled by neuroimmune signaling that includes an innately activated neuronal Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) signal. This signal also regulates cognitive impulsivity, a heritable trait that defines drug abuse initiation. However, the mechanism of signal activation, its function in dopaminergic (TH+) neurons within the reward circuitry implicated in drug-seeking behavior [viz. the ventral tegmental area (VTA)], and its contribution to nicotine co-abuse are still poorly understood. We report that the γ-aminobutyric acidA receptor (GABAAR) α2 subunit activates the TLR4 signal in neurons, culminating in the activation (phosphorylation/nuclear translocation) of cyclic AMP response element binding (CREB) but not NF-kB transcription factors and the upregulation of corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) and tyrosine hydroxylase (TH). The signal is activated through α2/TLR4 interaction, as evidenced by co-immunoprecipitation, and it is present in the VTA from drug-untreated alcohol-preferring P rats. VTA infusion of neurotropic herpes simplex virus (HSV) vectors for α2 (pHSVsiLA2) or TLR4 (pHSVsiTLR4) but not scrambled (pHSVsiNC) siRNA inhibits signal activation and both binge alcohol drinking and nicotine sensitization, suggesting that the α2-activated TLR4 signal contributes to the regulation of both alcohol and nicotine abuse.

CRF-amplified neuronal TLR4/MCP-1 signaling regulates alcohol self-administration.

Alcohol dependence is a complex disorder that initiates with episodes of excessive alcohol drinking known as binge drinking. It has a 50-60% risk contribution from inherited susceptibility genes; however, their exact identity and function are still poorly understood. We report that alcohol-preferring P rats have innately elevated levels of Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) and monocyte chemotactic protein-1 (MCP-1) that colocalize in neurons from the central nucleus of the amygdala (CeA) and ventral tegmental area (VTA). To examine the potential role of a TLR4/MCP-1 signal, we used Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV) vectors (amplicons) that retain in vivo neurotropism. Infusion of amplicons for TLR4 or MCP-1 siRNA into the CeA or VTA from the P rats inhibited target gene expression and blunted binge drinking. A similarly delivered amplicon for scrambled siRNA did not inhibit TLR4 or MCP-1 expression nor reduce binge drinking, identifying a neuronal TLR4/MCP-1 signal that regulates the initiation of voluntary alcohol self-administration. The signal was sustained during alcohol drinking by increased expression of corticotropin-releasing factor and its feedback regulation of TLR4 expression, likely contributing to the transition to alcohol dependence.

Amitifadine, a triple monoamine uptake inhibitor, reduces binge drinking and negative affect in an animal model of co-occurring alcoholism and depression symptomatology.

The co-occurrence of alcoholism and depression is highly prevalent and difficult to treat. In an animal model of binge drinking that exhibits abstinence-induced behaviors reminiscent of negative affective states, the triple monoamine uptake inhibitor, amitifadine, produced a selective, dose dependent attenuation of binge drinking. Amitifadine also reversed abstinence-induced increases in the intracranial self-stimulation threshold, a model of anhedonia, and immobility in the forced swim test, reflecting behavioral despair. In view of the safety profile of amitifadine in humans, including low risk for weight gain, lack of sexual side effects, and low potential for abuse, we hypothesize that amitifadine will be effective in treating co-occurring alcoholism and depression.

Binge Drinking: In Search of its Molecular Target via the GABA(A) Receptor.

Binge drinking, frequently referred to clinically as problem or hazardous drinking, is a pattern of excessive alcohol intake characterized by blood alcohol levels ≥0.08 g% within a 2-h period. Here, we show that overexpression of α1 subunits of the GABA(A) receptor contributes to binge drinking, and further document that this involvement is related to the neuroanatomical localization of α1 receptor subunits. Using a herpes simplex virus amplicon vector to deliver small interference RNA (siRNA), we showed that siRNA specific for the α1 subunit (pHSVsiLA1) caused profound, long-term, and selective reduction of gene expression, receptor density, and binge drinking in high-alcohol drinking rats when delivered into the ventral pallidum (VP). Scrambled siRNA (pHSVsiNC) delivered similarly into the VP failed to alter gene expression, receptor density, or binge drinking. Silencing of the α1 gene in the VP, however, failed to alter binge sucrose or water intake. These results, along with our prior research, provide compelling evidence that the α1-containing GABA(A) receptor subunits are critical in the regulation of binge-like patterns of excessive drinking. Collectively, these data may be useful in the development of gene-based and novel pharmacological approaches for the treatment of excessive drinking.