Dosage of X-linked Toll-like receptor 8 determines gender differences in the development of systemic lupus erythematosus.

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is an autoimmune disease with a high incidence in females and a complex phenotype. Using 564Igi mice, a model of SLE with knock-in genes encoding an autoreactive anti-RNA Ab, we investigated how expression of Toll-like receptors (TLRs) in B cells and neutrophils affects pathogenesis. We established that TLR signaling through MyD88 is necessary for disease. Autoantibody was produced in mice with single deletions of Tlr7, Tlr8, or Tlr9 or combined deletions of Tlr7 and Tlr9. Autoantibody was not produced in the combined absence of Tlr7 and Tlr8, indicating that TLR8 contributes to the break in tolerance. Furthermore, TLR8 was sufficient for the loss of B-cell tolerance, the production of class-switched autoantibody, heightened granulopoiesis, and increased production of type I IFN by neutrophils as well as glomerulonephritis and death. We show that dosage of X-linked Tlr8 plays a major role in the high incidence of disease in females. In addition, we show that the negative regulation of disease by TLR9 is exerted primarily on granulopoiesis and type I IFN production by neutrophils. Collectively, we suggest that individual TLRs play unique roles in the pathogenesis of systemic lupus erythematosus, suggesting new targets for treatment.

A conserved enhancer element differentially regulates developmental expression of CD5 in B and T cells.

We previously identified an enhancer element upstream of the mouse cd5 gene that was required in reporter assays for the induction of cd5 promoter activity by BCR cross-linking. This element is highly conserved in placental mammals. To determine its physiological role, we have now generated mice with a targeted deletion of the enhancer. The result is the loss of CD5 expression in peritoneal and splenic B-1a cells of adult mice and an inability to induce CD5 by cross-linking of the BCR on splenic B-2 cells. Surprisingly, CD5 expression on B-1a cells of neonatal mice was only minimally compromised. Cd5 enhancer deletion also had only a modest effect on CD5 expression in the T lineage. Thus, this enhancer provides age- and tissue-specific regulation of CD5 expression and is an example of the utilization of different modes of regulation of expression in T and B cells.

Sialic acid binding domains of CD22 are required for negative regulation of B cell receptor signaling.

CD22, a negative regulator of B cell antigen receptor signaling, binds glycoconjugates terminating in alpha2, 6 sialic acid. The physiological ligand(s) for CD22 remain unknown. We asked whether the sialic acid binding domains are necessary for CD22 to function as a negative regulator. We generated two mutants that lack sialic acid binding activity and expressed them in a novel CD22(-/-) murine B cell line. Anti-IgM activated B cells expressing either CD22 mutant had greater Ca(2+) responses than cells expressing wild-type CD22. Each variant also had reduced CD22 tyrosine phosphorylation and Src homology 2 domain-containing protein tyrosine phosphatase-1 association. These data suggest that the alpha2, 6 sialic acid ligand binding activity of CD22 is critical for its negative regulatory functions.

Accelerated Systemic Autoimmunity in the Absence of Somatic Hypermutation in 564Igi: A Mouse Model of Systemic Lupus with Knocked-In Heavy and Light Chain Genes.

564Igi mice have knocked-in immunoglobulin (Ig) heavy (H) and light (L) chain genes that encode an autoantibody recognizing RNA. Previously, we showed that these mice produce pathogenic IgG autoantibodies when activation-induced deaminase (AID) is expressed in pre-B and immature B cells but not when it is expressed only in mature B cells. AID has two functions; it is necessary for somatic hypermutation (SHM) and class switch recombination (CSR). To determine the role of each of these functions in the generation of pathogenic autoantibodies, we generated 564Igi mice that carry a mutant AID-encoding gene, Aicda (AicdaG23S), which is capable of promoting CSR but not SHM. We found that 564Igi AicdaG23S mice secreted class-switched antibodies (Abs) at levels approximately equal to 564Igi mice. However, compared to 564Igi mice, 564Igi Aicda G23S mice had increased pathogenic IgG Abs and severe systemic lupus erythematosus-like disease, including, glomerulonephritis, and early death. We suggest that in 564Igi mice SHM by AID changes Ig receptors away from self reactivity, thereby mitigating the production of autoantibody, providing a novel mechanism of tolerance.

Mineralocorticoid receptors in immune cells: emerging role in cardiovascular disease.

Mineralocorticoid receptors (MRs) contribute to the pathophysiology of hypertension and cardiovascular disease in humans. As such, MR antagonists improve cardiovascular outcomes but the molecular mechanisms remain unclear. The actions of the MR in the kidney to increase blood pressure are well known, but the recent identification of MRs in immune cells has led to novel discoveries in the pathogenesis of cardiovascular disease that are reviewed here. MR regulates macrophage activation to the pro-inflammatory M1 phenotype and this process contributes to the pathogenesis of cardiovascular fibrosis in response to hypertension and to outcomes in mouse models of stroke. T lymphocytes have recently been implicated in the development of hypertension and cardiovascular fibrosis in mouse models. MR activation in vivo promotes T lymphocyte differentiation to the pro-inflammatory Th1 and Th17 subsets while decreasing the number of anti-inflammatory T regulatory lymphocytes. The mechanism likely involves activation of MR in antigen presenting dendritic cells that subsequently regulate Th1/Th17 polarization by production of cytokines. Alteration of the balance between T helper and T regulatory lymphocytes contributes to the pathogenesis of hypertension and atherosclerosis and the associated complications. B lymphocytes also express the MR and specific B lymphocyte-derived antibodies modulate the progression of atherosclerosis. However, the role of MR in B lymphocyte function remains to be explored. Overall, recent studies of MR in immune cells have identified new mechanisms by which MR activation may contribute to the pathogenesis of organ damage in patients with cardiovascular risk factors. Conversely, inhibition of leukocyte MR may contribute to the protective effects of MR antagonist drugs in cardiovascular patients. Further understanding of the role of MR in leukocyte function could yield novel drug targets for cardiovascular disease.

Toll-like receptor 7-dependent loss of B cell tolerance in pathogenic autoantibody knockin mice.

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is characterized by the production of autoantibodies that are frequently directed against nucleic acid-associated antigens. To better understand how B cells reactive with such antigens are regulated, we generated a model system in which heavy and light chain genes encoding 564 immunoglobulin have been targeted to the heavy and light chain loci of the nonautoimmune C57BL/6 mouse strain. This antibody recognizes RNA, single-stranded DNA, and nucleosomes. We show that B cells expressing this immunoglobulin were activated, producing class-switched autoantibody in vivo despite the apparently normal induction of anergy. This autoantibody production was largely dependent on Toll-like receptor 7 (TLR7). We further show that production of these autoantibodies was sufficient to cause kidney pathology in these mice. These results demonstrate that the particular threat of nucleic acid-containing autoantigens lies in their ability to bind both antigen receptor and TLR7.

Babesia microti primarily invades mature erythrocytes in mice.

Babesia microti is a tick-borne red blood cell parasite that causes babesiosis in people. Its most common vertebrate reservoir is the white-footed mouse. To determine whether B. microti invades reticulocytes, as does the canine pathogen B. gibsoni, we infected the susceptible inbred mouse strains C.B-17.scid and DBA/2 with a clinical isolate of B. microti. Staining of fixed permeabilized red blood cells with 4',6'-diamidino-2-phenylindole or YOYO-1, a sensitive nucleic acid stain, revealed parasite nuclei as large bright dots. Flow cytometric analysis indicated that parasite DNA is primarily found in mature erythrocytes that expressed Babesia antigens but not the transferrin receptor CD71. In contrast, CD71-positive reticulocytes rarely contained Babesia nuclei and failed to express Babesia antigens. Accordingly, the frequency of YOYO-1-positive, CD71-negative cells strongly correlated with parasitemia, defined as the frequency of infected red blood cells assessed on Giemsa-stained blood smears. Importantly, the absolute numbers generated by the two techniques were similar. Parasitemia was modest and transient in DBA/2 mice but intense and sustained in C.B-17.scid mice. In both strains, parasitemia preceded reticulocytosis, but reticulocytes remained refractory to B. microti. In immunocompetent C.B-17 mice, reticulocytosis developed early, despite a marginal and short-lived parasitemia. Likewise, an early reticulocytosis developed in resistant BALB/cBy and B10.D2 mice. These studies establish that B. microti has a tropism for mature erythrocytes. Although reticulocytes are rarely infected, the delayed reticulocytosis in susceptible strains may result from parasite or host activities to limit renewal of the mature erythrocyte pool, thereby preventing an overwhelming parasitemia.

Origins and functions of B-1 cells with notes on the role of CD5.

Whether B-1a (CD5+) cells are a distinct lineage derived from committed fetal/neonatal precursors or arise from follicular B-2 cells in response to BCR ligation and other, unknown signals remains controversial. Recent evidence indicates that B-1a cells can derive from adult precursors expressing an appropriate specificity when the (self-) antigen is present. Antibody specificity determines whether a B cell expressing immunoglobulin transgenes has a B-2, B-1a or marginal zone (MZ) phenotype. MZ cells share many phenotypic characteristics of B-1 cells and, like them, appear to develop in response to T independent type 2 antigens. Because fetal-derived B cell progenitors fail to express terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase (TdT) and for other reasons, they are likely to express a repertoire that allows selection into the B-1a population. As it is selected by self-antigen, the B-1 repertoire tends to be autoreactive. This potentially dangerous repertoire is also useful, as B-1 cells are essential for resistance to several pathogens and they play an important role in mucosal immunity. The CD5 molecule can function as a negative regulator of BCR signaling that may help prevent inappropriate activation of autoreactive B-1a cells.

Normal B-1a cell development requires B cell-intrinsic NFATc1 activity.

B-1a cells, an anatomically, phenotypically, and functionally distinct subset of B cells that produce the bulk of natural serum IgM and much of gut-associated IgA, are an important component of the early response to pathogens. Because the induced expression of CD5, a hallmark of B-1a cells, requires a nuclear factor of activated T cells (NFAT)-dependent enhancer, we examined the role of NFAT transcription factors in B-1a development. Here we show that the B-1a compartment is normal in mice lacking NFATc2 but essentially absent in mice lacking NFATc1. Loss of NFATc1 affects both peritoneal and splenic B-1a cells. Because there is a loss of B-1 cells defined by markers other than CD5, NFATc1 is not required simply for CD5 expression on B-1a cells. Using mixed-allotype chimeras and retroviral-mediated gene transduction we show that the requirement for NFATc1 is B cell-intrinsic. We also demonstrate that NFATc1 protein expression is elevated approximately 5-fold in B-1a cells compared with B-2 cells. This is the first definitive demonstration of a B cell-intrinsic function for an NFAT family transcription factor.

The Trypanosoma cruzi trans-sialidase is a T cell-independent B cell mitogen and an inducer of non-specific Ig secretion.

Polyclonal lymphocyte activation and hypergammaglobulinemia characterize the acute phase of many parasitic diseases, including Chagas' disease, a debilitating condition caused by Trypanosoma cruzi. Polyclonal lymphocyte activation correlates with disease susceptibility inT. cruzi infection. Thus, identifying factors that drive such reactivities should provide insight into mechanisms of parasite evasion from host immunity and of disease pathogenesis. Sensitization of mice with small doses of T. cruzi trans-sialidase (TS) turns the mice into highly susceptible hosts to T. cruzi. In addition, TS heterologously expressed in Leishmania major greatly enhances virulence of the parasite to mice. In attempt to study the mechanism of TS-induced virulence, we found that TS and its C-terminal long tandem repeat (LTR) are T-independent polyclonal activators for mouse B cells. While B cells deficient/defective in L-6, CD40 or Toll-like receptor-4 are similarly activated by TS as compared to wild-type cells, B cells from Bruton's tyrosine kinase-defective X-linked immunodeficient mice are remarkably insensitive to TS activation. TS-induced B cell activation in vitro is accompanied by Ig secretion independent of T cells. Furthermore, administration of TS into normal mice leads to non-specific Ig secretion that peaks 4-6 days after injection. Thus TS, through its LTR, induces abnormal polyclonal B cell activation and Ig secretion, which could explain in part its virulence-enhancing activity.

Two new isotype-specific switching activities detected for Ig class switching.

Ig class switch recombination (CSR) occurs by an intrachromosomal deletional process between switch (S) regions in B cells. To facilitate the study of CSR, we derived a new B cell line, 1.B4.B6, which is uniquely capable of mu --> gamma3, mu --> epsilon, and mu --> alpha, but not mu --> gamma1 CSR at its endogenous loci. The 1.B4.B6 cell line was used in combination with plasmid-based isotype-specific S substrates in transient transfection assays to test for the presence of trans-acting switching activities. The 1.B4.B6 cell line supports mu --> gamma3, but not mu --> gamma1 recombination, on S substrates. In contrast, normal splenic B cells activated with LPS and IL-4 are capable of plasmid-based mu --> gamma1 CSR and demonstrate that this S plasmid is active. Activation-induced deaminase (AID) was used as a marker to identify existing B cell lines as possible candidates for supporting CSR. The M12 and A20 cell lines were identified as AID positive and, following activation with CD40L and other activators, were found to differentially support mu --> epsilon and mu --> alpha plasmid-based CSR. These studies provide evidence for two new switching activities for mu --> gamma1 and mu --> epsilon CSR, which are distinct from mu --> gamma3 and mu --> alpha switching activities previously described. AID is expressed in all the B cell lines capable of CSR, but cannot account for the isotype specificity defined by the S plasmid assay. These results are consistent with a model in which isotype-specific switching factors are either isotype-specific recombinases or DNA binding proteins with sequence specificity for S DNA.

CD22 attenuates calcium signaling by potentiating plasma membrane calcium-ATPase activity.

Binding of antigen to the B cell receptor induces a calcium response, which is required for proliferation and antibody production. CD22, a B cell surface protein, inhibits this signal through mechanisms that have been obscure. We report here that CD22 augments calcium efflux after B cell receptor crosslinking. Inhibition of plasma membrane calcium-ATPase (PMCA) attenuated these effects, as did disruption by homologous recombination of the gene encoding PMCA4a and PMCA4b. PMCA coimmunoprecipitated with CD22 in an activation-dependent way. CD22 cytoplasmic tyrosine residues were required for association with PMCA and enhancement of calcium efflux. Moreover, CD22 regulation of efflux and the calcium response required the tyrosine phosphatase SHP-1. Thus, SHP-1 and PMCA provide a mechanism by which CD22, a tissue-specific negative regulator, can affect calcium responses.

Age-associated decline in resistance to Babesia microti is genetically determined.

BACKGROUND: Although infection by the protozoan Babesia microti is rarely symptomatic in immunocompetent young people, healthy individuals aged >50 years may experience life-threatening disease. To determine the basis for this age relationship, we developed a mouse model of babesiosis using a novel clinical isolate of B. microti. METHODS: Mice were infected at 2, 6, 12, or 18 months. Parasitemia was monitored on Giemsa-stained blood smears or by flow cytometry. RESULTS: In DBA/2 mice, early and persistent parasitemias increased with age at infection. BALB/c and C57BL/6 mice were resistant, regardless of age, which indicates that allelic variation determines resistance to B. microti. Unlike immunocompetent mice, SCID mice, which retain an innate immune system but lack the lymphocytes needed for adaptive immunity, developed high and persistent levels of parasitemia that were markedly reduced by transfer of naive BALB/c or DBA/2 splenocytes. BALB/c cells reduced the persistent parasitemia to a greater extent than did age-matched DBA/2 cells. Of importance, there was an age-associated loss of protection by cells of both strains. CONCLUSION: The resistance to B. microti infection conferred by the adaptive immune system is genetically determined and associated with age. We postulate that there are age-related differences in the expression of alleles critical for adaptive immunity to B. microti.