The ZAR1 resistosome is a calcium-permeable channel triggering plant immune signaling.

Nucleotide-binding, leucine-rich repeat receptors (NLRs) are major immune receptors in plants and animals. Upon activation, the Arabidopsis NLR protein ZAR1 forms a pentameric resistosome in vitro and triggers immune responses and cell death in plants. In this study, we employed single-molecule imaging to show that the activated ZAR1 protein can form pentameric complexes in the plasma membrane. The ZAR1 resistosome displayed ion channel activity in Xenopus oocytes in a manner dependent on a conserved acidic residue Glu11 situated in the channel pore. Pre-assembled ZAR1 resistosome was readily incorporated into planar lipid-bilayers and displayed calcium-permeable cation-selective channel activity. Furthermore, we show that activation of ZAR1 in the plant cell led to Glu11-dependent Ca2+ influx, perturbation of subcellular structures, production of reactive oxygen species, and cell death. The results thus support that the ZAR1 resistosome acts as a calcium-permeable cation channel to trigger immunity and cell death.

Triggering the Channel-Sulfur Sites in 1T'-ReS2 Cocatalyst toward Splendid Photocatalytic Hydrogen Generation.

Electron density manipulation of active sites in cocatalysts is of great essential to realize the optimal hydrogen adsorption/desorption behavior for constructing high-efficient H2 -evolution photocatalyst. Herein, a strategy about weakening metal-metal bond strength to directionally optimize the electron density of channel-sulfur(S) sites in 1T' Re1- x Mox S2 cocatalyst is clarified to improve their hydrogen adsorption strength (S─H bond) for rapid H2 -production reaction. In this case, the ultrathin Re1- x Mox S2 nanosheet is in situ anchored on the TiO2 surface to form Re1- x Mox S2 /TiO2 photocatalyst by a facial molten salt method. Remarkably, numerous visual H2 bubbles are constantly generated on the optimal Re0.92 Mo0.08 S2 /TiO2 sample with a 10.56 mmol g-1  h-1 rate (apparent quantum efficiency is about 50.6%), which is 2.6 times higher than that of traditional ReS2 /TiO2 sample. Density functional theory and in situ/ex situ X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy results collectively demonstrate that the weakened Re─Re bond strength via Mo introduction can induce the formation of unique electron-deficient channel-S sites with suitable electron density, which yield thermoneutral S─H bonds to realize superior interfacial H2 -generation performance. This work provides fundamental guidance on purposely optimizing the electronic state of active sites by manipulating the intrinsic bonding structure, which opens an avenue for designing efficacious photocatalytic materials.

Single-Molecule Imaging Reveals Differential AT1R Stoichiometry Change in Biased Signaling.

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) represent promising therapeutic targets due to their involvement in numerous physiological processes mediated by downstream G protein- and ß-arrestin-mediated signal transduction cascades. Although the precise control of GPCR signaling pathways is therapeutically valuable, the molecular details for governing biased GPCR signaling remain elusive. The Angiotensin II type 1 receptor (AT1R), a prototypical class A GPCR with profound implications for cardiovascular functions, has become a focal point for biased ligand-based clinical interventions. Herein, we used single-molecule live-cell imaging techniques to evaluate the changes in stoichiometry and dynamics of AT1R with distinct biased ligand stimulations in real time. It was revealed that AT1R existed predominantly in monomers and dimers and underwent oligomerization upon ligand stimulation. Notably, ß-arrestin-biased ligands induced the formation of higher-order aggregates, resulting in a slower diffusion profile for AT1R compared to G protein-biased ligands. Furthermore, we demonstrated that the augmented aggregation of AT1R, triggered by activation from each biased ligand, was completely abrogated in ß-arrestin knockout cells. These findings furnish novel insights into the intricate relationship between GPCR aggregation states and biased signaling, underscoring the pivotal role of molecular behaviors in guiding the development of selective therapeutic agents.

Anti-Inflammatory Effect of Sulfated Polysaccharides Isolated from Codium fragile In Vitro in RAW 264.7 Macrophages and In Vivo in Zebrafish.

In this study, the anti-inflammatory activity of sulfated polysaccharides isolated from the green seaweed Codium fragile (CFCE-PS) was investigated in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages and zebrafish. The results demonstrated that CFCE-PS significantly increased the viability of LPS-induced RAW 264.7 cells in a concentration-dependent manner. CFCE-PS remarkably and concentration-dependently reduced the levels of inflammatory molecules including prostaglandin E2, nitric oxide (NO), interleukin-1 beta, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, and interleukin-6 in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells. In addition, in vivo test results indicated that CFCE-PS effectively reduced reactive oxygen species, cell death, and NO levels in LPS-stimulated zebrafish. Thus, these results indicate that CFCE-PS possesses in vitro and in vivo anti-inflammatory activities and suggest it is a potential ingredient in the functional food and pharmaceutical industries.

Anti-Melanogenesis and Photoprotective Effects of Ecklonia maxima Extract Containing Dieckol and Eckmaxol.

Seaweeds are potential ingredients in the cosmeceutical industry. Our previous study demonstrates that the phlorotannin-enriched extract of Ecklonia maxima (EME-EA) containing dieckol and eckmaxol possesses strong anti-inflammatory activity and suggests the cosmeceutical potential of EME-EA. In order to evaluate the cosmeceutical potential of EME-EA, the anti-melanogenesis and photoprotective effects of EME-EA were investigated in this study. EME-EA remarkably inhibited mushroom tyrosinase and melanogenesis in alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone-stimulated B16F10 cells. In addition, EME-EA significantly suppressed UVB-induced HaCaT cell death that was consistent with inhibition of apoptosis and reduction in scavenging intracellular reactive oxygen species. Furthermore, EME-EA significantly inhibited collagen degradation and matrix metalloproteinases expression in UVB-irradiated HDF cells in a concentration-dependent manner. These results indicate that EME-EA possesses strong anti-melanogenesis and photoprotective activities and suggest EME-EA is an ideal ingredient in the pharmaceutical and cosmeceutical industries.

High-Frequency Vibration Analysis of Piezoelectric Array Sensor under Lateral-Field-Excitation Based on Crystals with 3 m Point Group.

Based on Mindlin's first-order plate theory, the high-frequency vibrations of piezoelectric bulk acoustic wave array sensors under lateral-field-excitation based on crystals with 3 m point group are analyzed, and the spectral-frequency relationships are solved, based on which, the optimal length-thickness ratio of the piezoelectric crystal plate is determined. Then, the dynamic capacitance diagram is obtained by a forced vibration analysis of the piezoelectric crystal plate. The resonant mode conforming to good energy trapping is further obtained. The frequency interferences between different resonator units are calculated, and the influences of the spacing between two resonant units on the frequency interference with different electrode widths and spacings are analyzed. Finally, the safe spacings between resonator units are obtained. As the electrode spacing value of the left unit increases, the safe spacing d0 between the two resonator units decreases, and the frequency interference curve tends to zero faster. When the electrode spacings of two resonator units are equal, the safe distance is largest, and the frequency interference curve tends to zero slowest. The theoretical results are verified further by finite element method. The analysis model of high frequency vibrations of strongly coupled piezoelectric bulk acoustic array device based on LiTaO3 crystals with 3 m point group proposed in this paper can provide reliable theoretical guidance for size optimization designs of strongly coupled piezoelectric array sensors under lateral-field-excitation.

Molecular Mechanism of Anti-Inflammatory Activities of a Novel Sulfated Galactofucan from Saccharina japonica.

Seaweed of Saccharina japonica is the most abundantly cultured brown seaweed in the world, and has been consumed in the food industry due to its nutrition and the unique properties of its polysaccharides. In this study, fucoidan (LJNF3), purified from S. japonica, was found to be a novel sulfated galactofucan, with the monosaccharide of only fucose and galactose in a ratio of 79.22:20.78, and with an 11.36% content of sulfate groups. NMR spectroscopy showed that LJNF3 consists of (1→3)-α-l-fucopyranosyl-4-SO3 residues and (1→6)-ß-d-galactopyranose units. The molecular mechanism of the anti-inflammatory effect in RAW264.7 demonstrated that LJNF3 reduced the production of nitric oxide (NO), and down-regulated the expression of MAPK (including p38, ENK and JNK) and NF-κB (including p65 and IKKα/IKKß) signaling pathways. In a zebrafish experiment assay, LJNF3 showed a significantly protective effect, by reducing the cell death rate, inhibiting NO to 59.43%, and decreasing about 40% of reactive oxygen species. This study indicated that LJNF3, which only consisted of fucose and galactose, had the potential to be developed in the biomedical, food and cosmetic industries.

In Vitro and In Vivo Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Sulfated Polysaccharides Isolated from the Edible Brown Seaweed, Sargassum fulvellum.

In the present study, the in vitro and in vivo anti-inflammatory effects of the sulfated polysaccharides isolated from Sargassum fulvellum (SFPS) were evaluated in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages and zebrafish. The results indicated that SFPS improved the viability of LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages from 80.02 to 86.80, 90.09, and 94.62% at the concentration of 25, 50, and 100 µg/mL, respectively. Also, SFPS remarkably and concentration-dependently decreased the production levels of inflammatory molecules including nitric oxide (NO), tumor necrosis factor-alpha, prostaglandin E2, interleukin-1 beta, and interleukin-6 in LPS-treated RAW 264.7 macrophages. In addition, SFPS significantly inhibited the expression levels of cyclooxygenase-2 and inducible nitric oxide synthase in LPS-treated RAW 264.7 macrophages. Furthermore, the in vivo test results indicated that SFPS improved the survival rate of LPS-treated zebrafish from 53.33 to 56.67, 60.00, and 70.00% at the concentration of 25, 50, and 100 µg/mL, respectively. In addition, SFPS effectively reduced cell death, reactive oxygen species, and NO levels in LPS-stimulated zebrafish. Taken together, these results suggested that SFPS possesses strong in vitro and in vivo anti-inflammatory activities, and could be used as an ingredient to develop anti-inflammatory agents in the functional food and pharmaceutical industries.

In Vitro and In Vivo Photoprotective Effects of (-)-Loliode Isolated from the Brown Seaweed, Sargassum horneri.

Skin is the largest organ of humans. Overexposure to ultraviolet (UV) is the primary environmental factor that causes skin damage. The compound, (-)-loliode, isolated from the brown seaweed Sargassum horneri, showed strong antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities in in vitro and in vivo models. To further explore the potential of (-)-loliode in cosmetics, in the present study, we investigated the photoprotective effect of (-)-loliode in vitro in skin cells and in vivo in zebrafish. The results indicated that (-)-loliode significantly reduced intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) level, improved cell viability, and suppressed apoptosis of UVB-irradiated human keratinocytes. In addition, (-)-loliode remarkably attenuated oxidative damage, improved collagen synthesis, and inhibited matrix metalloproteinases expression in UVB-irradiated human dermal fibroblasts. Furthermore, the in vivo test demonstrated that (-)-loliode effectively and dose-dependently suppressed UVB-induced zebrafish damage displayed in decreasing the levels of ROS, nitric oxide, lipid peroxidation, and cell death in UVB-irradiated zebrafish. These results indicate that (-)-loliode possesses strong photoprotective activities and suggest (-)-loliode may an ideal ingredient in the pharmaceutical and cosmeceutical industries.

A Sulfated Polysaccharide from Saccharina japonica Suppresses LPS-Induced Inflammation Both in a Macrophage Cell Model via Blocking MAPK/NF-κB Signal Pathways In Vitro and a Zebrafish Model of Embryos and Larvae In Vivo.

Inflammation is a complicated host-protective response to stimuli and toxic conditions, and is considered as a double-edged sword. A sulfated Saccharinajaponica polysaccharide (LJPS) with a sulfate content of 9.07% showed significant inhibitory effects against lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced inflammation in RAW 264.7 macrophage cells and zebrafish. Its chemical and structural properties were investigated via HPLC, GC, FTIR, and NMR spectroscopy. In vitro experiments demonstrated that LJPS significantly inhibited the generation of nitric oxide (NO) and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) via the downregulation of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) expression and suppressed pro-inflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and interleukin (IL)-1ß production via the nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signal pathways in LPS-induced RAW 264.7 cells. Moreover, LJPS showed strong protective effects against LPS-induced inflammatory responses in zebrafish, increasing the survival rate, reducing the heart rate and yolk sac edema size, and inhibiting cell death and the production of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) and NO. Its convenience for large-scale production and significant anti-inflammatory activity indicated the potential application of LJPS in functional foods, cosmetics, and pharmaceutical industries.

Protective Effect of a Fucose-Rich Fucoidan Isolated from Saccharina japonica against Ultraviolet B-Induced Photodamage In Vitro in Human Keratinocytes and In Vivo in Zebrafish.

A fucose-rich fucoidan was purified from brown seaweed Saccharina japonica, of which the UVB protective effect was investigated in vitro in keratinocytes of HaCaT cells and in vivo in zebrafish. The intracellular reactive oxygen species levels and the viability of UVB-irradiated HaCaT cells were determined. The results indicate that the purified fucoidan significantly reduced the intracellular reactive oxygen species levels and improved the viability of UVB-irradiated HaCaT cells. Furthermore, the purified fucoidan remarkably decreased the apoptosis by regulating the expressions of Bax/Bcl-xL and cleaved caspase-3 in UVB-irradiated HaCaT cells in a dose-dependent manner. In addition, the in vivo UV protective effect of the purified fucoidan was investigated using a zebrafish model. It significantly reduced the intracellular reactive oxygen species level, the cell death, the NO production, and the lipid peroxidation in UVB-irradiated zebrafish in a dose-dependent manner. These results suggest that purified fucoidan has a great potential to be developed as a natural anti-UVB agent applied in the cosmetic industry.

Automated Stoichiometry Analysis of Single-Molecule Fluorescence Imaging Traces via Deep Learning.

The stoichiometry of protein complexes is precisely regulated in cells and is fundamental to protein function. Singe-molecule fluorescence imaging based photobleaching event counting is a new approach for protein stoichiometry determination under physiological conditions. Due to the interference of the high noise level and photoblinking events, accurately extracting real bleaching steps from single-molecule fluorescence traces is still a challenging task. Here, we develop a novel method of using convolutional and long-short-term memory deep learning neural network (CLDNN) for photobleaching event counting. We design the  convolutional layers to accurately extract features of steplike photobleaching drops and long-short-term memory (LSTM) recurrent layers to distinguish between photobleaching and photoblinking events. Compared with traditional algorithms, CLDNN shows higher accuracy with at least 2 orders of magnitude improvement of efficiency, and it does not require user-specified parameters. We have verified our CLDNN method using experimental data from imaging of single dye-labeled molecules in vitro and epidermal growth factor receptors (EGFR) on cells. Our CLDNN method is expected to provide a new strategy to stoichiometry study and time series analysis in chemistry.

The modulation of Smac/DIABLO on mitochondrial apoptosis induced by LPS in Crassostrea gigas.

The mitochondrial pathway of apoptosis is well studied as the major mechanism of physiological cell death in vertebrates. In the present study, a second mitochondria-derived activator of caspases (Smac)/direct inhibitor of apoptosis-binding protein (IAP) with low pI protein (DIABLO) (designated as CgSmac) was identified from oyster Crassostrea gigas. The open reading frame of CgSmac was of 966 bp nucleotides encoding a predicted polypeptide of 321 amino acids with a conserved Smac/DIABLO domain containing a potential IAP-binding motif of VMPV. CgSmac proteins were distributed in hemocytes and co-localized with mitochondria. Western blotting analysis revealed that CgSmac proteins mainly existed in the dimer form in hemocytes, and the monomeric precursors and mature monomers were also detected. After lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulation, the mRNA expression of CgSmac in hemocytes was significantly up-regulated and peaked at 6 h (12.26-fold, p < 0.05), and the protein level of its dimers was significantly up-regulated at 6 h, 12 h, 24 h, and 48 h, while that of CgSmac monomers was up-regulated at 6 h, 12 h and down-regulated at 24 h, 48 h. The decrease of mitochondrial membrane potential indicated that the occurrence of early stage of apoptosis in primary cultured hemocytes was induced by LPS, and RNA interference (RNAi) of CgSmac could not rescue this decrease. The caspase-3 activity in primary cultured hemocytes was significantly suppressed after RNAi of CgSmac. Correspondingly, the total apoptotic rate of primary cultured hemocytes was also significantly suppressed in dsCgSmac + LPS group (31.57%) compared to dsEGFP + LPS group (40.27%, p < 0.05), which in turn demonstrated the conserved pro-apoptotic function of CgSmac. Furthermore, the early apoptotic rate (10.4% vs. 8.5%, p < 0.05) was significantly higher in dsCgSmac + LPS group than that of dsEGFP + LPS group, while the necrosis (7.7% vs. 10.0%, p < 0.05) and late apoptotic rates (13.4% vs. 21.9%, p < 0.05) were lower in dsCgSmac + LPS group than those of dsEGFP + LPS group. Collectively, CgSmac could activate mitochondrial apoptosis pathway by promoting caspase-3 activity in oyster hemocytes against exogenous LPS invasion. These results provided new insights on oyster apoptosis and the immune defense mechanisms in invertebrates.

Bulk Acoustic Wave Characteristics of Pseudo Lateral-Field-Excitation on LGT Single Crystal for Liquid Phase Sensing.

In the present study, pseudo lateral-field-excitation (LFE) bulk acoustic wave characteristics on LGT crystals are investigated to increase the sensitivity of LFE devices on the liquid characteristic variations. The cut orientation of LGT crystals for pseudo-LFE is investigated and verified experimentally. For an LFE device in the pseudo-LFE mode, the thickness shear mode wave is excited by the thickness field rather than the lateral field. The present work shows that when the (yxl) 13.8° LGT plate is excited by the electric field parallel to the crystallographic axis x, it operates in the pseudo-LFE mode. Moreover, characteristics of devices including the sensitivity and impedance are investigated. The present work shows that sensitivity of LFE devices to variation of the conductivity and permittivity of the aqueous solution are 9 and 3.2 times higher than those for AT-cut quartz crystal based devices, respectively. Furthermore, it has been found that the sensitivity of the LGT LFE sensor to liquid acoustic viscosity variations is 1.4 times higher than the one for the AT-cut quartz sensor. The results are a critical basis of designing high-performance liquid phase sensors by using pseudo-LFE devices.

Polar Solvent Induced Lattice Distortion of Cubic CsPbI3 Nanocubes and Hierarchical Self-Assembly into Orthorhombic Single-Crystalline Nanowires.

Despite the recent surge of interest in inorganic lead halide perovskite nanocrystals, there are still significant gaps in their stability disturbance and the understanding of their destabilization, assembly, and growth processes. Here, we discover that polar solvent molecules can induce the lattice distortion of ligand-stabilized cubic CsPbI3, leading to the phase transition into orthorhombic phase, which is unfavorable for photovoltaic applications. Such lattice distortion triggers the dipole moment on CsPbI3 nanocubes, which subsequently initiates the hierarchical self-assembly of CsPbI3 nanocubes into single-crystalline nanowires. The systematic investigations and in situ monitoring on the kinetics of the self-assembly process disclose that the more amount or the stronger polarity of solvent can induce the more rapid self-assembly and phase transition. These results not only elucidate the destabilization mechanism of cubic CsPbI3 nanocrystals, but also open up opportunities to synthesize and store cubic CsPbI3 for their practical applications in photovoltaics and optoelectronics.

Characterization of Hepatitis C Virus Core Protein Dimerization by Atomic Force Microscopy.

Dimerization of core protein is a crucial step in the formation of the hepatitis C virus (HCV) nucleocapsid, and inhibition of dimer formation is regarded as an attractive approach to design anti-HCV drugs. In this work, we developed the atomic force microscopy based single molecular force spectroscopy (AFM-SMFS) method for the characterization of core protein dimerization with the advantages of small amount of sample consumption and no need of labeling. Interaction force of the core protein with its antibody or aptamer was analyzed to investigate its stoichiometry and binding property. The two specific binding forces were detected due to the probing of dimeric and monomeric core protein, respectively. Moreover, the binding property of protein dimer was different from the monomer. Our work offers a new approach to study the dimerization of core protein, as well as other proteins, and to screen the HCV candidate inhibitors.

A Prokineticin (PK)-like cytokine from Chinese mitten crab Eriocheir sinensis promotes the production of hemocytes via reactive oxygen species.

Astakine is a cytokine-like factor containing a prokineticin domain, which directly participates in hematopoiesis and blood cell differentiation. In the present study, a novel Astakine gene was identified from Chinese mitten crab Eriocheir sinensis (designated as EsAst). The full-length cDNA of EsAst was of 1163 bp, consisting of a 5' untranslated region (UTR) of 120 bp, a 3' UTR of 656 bp, and an open reading frame (ORF) of 387 bp encoding a polypeptide of 128 amino acids. There were a signal peptide and a prokineticin domain with nine conserved cysteine residues in the deduced amino acid sequence of EsAst. EsAst shared higher similarity with Astakines from Penaeus monodon and Pacifastacus leniusculus, and it was closely clustered with the Astakine from shrimp P. monodon in the phylogenetic tree. The EsAst mRNA transcript was higher expressed in hemocytes and hepatopancreas. The relative expression level of EsAst in hemocytes was continuously increased from 1.5 to 48 h after Vibro anguillarum challenge compared that in the untreated control group. After Pichia pastoris GS115 challenge, the relative expression level of EsAst in hemocytes was also up-regulated. After rEsAst injection, ROS levels in HPT cells were also increased at 12 and 24 h, and the total hemocyte counts were also significantly increased at 6, 9, 12, and 24 h post rEsAst injection. The interference of EsAst expression with dsRNA injection could delay the recovery of hemocytes production post A. hydrophila stimulation. When mitochondrial complexes I was knock down by dsRNA, ROS levels were decreased and THCs were also decreased. Recovery of hemocyte production inducing by A. hydrophila stimulation and rEsAst injection were delayed with dsEsbc1 injection. When ROS levels were increased after RNAi of Lon protease, THCs were also increased. The expression levels of five genes (EsJNK, EsSTAT, EsPI3K, EsAKT1, EsP70S6K) involved in SAPK-JNK and mTOR signaling pathways were up-regulated at 12 and 24 h in rEsAst group and EsLon dsRNA group compared with that in EGFP dsRNA group, and were similar to the trend of ROS levels. These results collectively suggested that EsAst should be a novel Astakine to promote the production of hemocytes in a ROS-dependent way in E. sinensis.

Single-molecule force spectroscopy study of interactions between angiotensin II type 1 receptor and different biased ligands in living cells.

Angiotensin II type 1 receptor (AT1R), a typical G protein-coupled receptor, plays a key role in regulating many cardiovascular functions. Different ligands can bind with AT1R to selectively activate either G protein (Gq) or ß-arrestin (ß-arr) pathway, or both pathways, but the molecular mechanism is not clear yet. In this work, we used, for the first time, atomic force microscopy-based single molecule force spectroscopy (SMFS) to study the interactions of AT1R with three types of ligands, balanced ligand, Gq-biased ligand, and ß-arr-biased ligand, in living cells. The results revealed their difference in binding force and binding stability. The complex of the Gq-biased ligand-AT1R overcame two energy barriers with an intermediate state during dissociation, whereas that of ß-arr-biased ligand-AT1R complex overcame one energy barrier. This indicated that AT1R had different ligand-binding conformational substates and underwent different structural changes to activate downstream signaling pathways with variable agonist efficacies. Quantitative analysis of AT1R-ligand binding in living cells at the single-molecule level offers a new tool to study the molecular mechanism of AT1R biased activation. Graphical Abstract Single-molecule force measurement on the living cell expressing AT1R-eGFP with a ligand modified AFM tip (left), the dynamic force spectra of ß-arrestin biased ligands-AT1R (middle), and Gq-biased ligands-AT1R (right). The complexes of ß-arr-biased ligand-AT1R overcame one energy barrier, with one linear region in the spectra, whereas the Gq-biased ligand-AT1R complexes overcame two energy barriers with two linear regions.

Quantitative single-molecule study of TGF-ß/Smad signaling.

TGF-ß/Smad signaling pathway triggers diverse cellular responses among different cell types and environmental conditions. Quantitative analysis of protein-protein interactions involved in TGF-ß/Smad signaling is demanded for understanding the molecular mechanism of this signaling pathway. Live-cell single-molecule microcopy with high spatiotemporal resolution is a new tool to monitor key molecular events in a real-time manner. In this review, we mainly presented the recent work on the quantitative characterization of TGF-ß/Smad signaling proteins by single-molecule method, and showed how it enabled us to obtain new insights about this canonical signaling process.

Soluble adenylyl cyclase mediates mitochondrial pathway of apoptosis and ATP metabolism in oyster Crassostrea gigas exposed to elevated CO2.

Ocean acidification (OA) has deleterious impacts on immune response and energy homeostasis status of Mollusca. In the present study, the apoptosis ratio of hemocytes and the adenosine triphosphate (ATP) allocation in gill tissues were determined after Pacific oysters Crassostrea gigas were exposed to elevated CO2 environment (pH = 7.50) for 16 days.The apoptosis ratio in CO2 exposure group (35.2%) was significantly higher (p < 0.05) than that in the control group, and the increased apoptosis ratio induced by elevated CO2 could be significantly inhibited (p < 0.05) by KH7, a specific inhibitor of a bicarbonate sensor soluble adenylyl cyclase (sAC). After CO2 exposure, sAC in oyster (CgsAC) was found to be clustered with mitochondria in the cytoplasm, and the pro-caspase-3 was cleaved into two small fragments. Moreover, the activities of caspase-3 and caspase-9 also increased post CO2 exposure and these increases could be inhibited by KH7. However, the activities of caspase-8 did not change significantly compared with that in the control group. After CO2 exposure, the ATP content in the gill increased significantly (p < 0.05) and such increase could also be inhibited by KH7. The ATP content in purified gill mitochondria decreased significantly (p < 0.05) after CO2 exposure, which was also inhibited by KH7. These results implied that the elevated CO2 could activate the mitochondria-CgsAC pathway of apoptosis and ATP metabolism in oyster, and this pathway played essential roles in maintaining the homeostasis and the balance of energy metabolism in response to OA.