ATP and Adenosine Metabolism in Cancer: Exploitation for Therapeutic Gain.

Adenosine is an evolutionary ancient metabolic regulator linking energy state to physiologic processes, including immunomodulation and cell proliferation. Tumors create an adenosine-rich immunosuppressive microenvironment through the increased release of ATP from dying and stressed cells and its ectoenzymatic conversion into adenosine. Therefore, the adenosine pathway becomes an important therapeutic target to improve the effectiveness of immune therapies. Prior research has focused largely on the two major ectonucleotidases, ectonucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolase 1/cluster of differentiation (CD)39 and ecto-5'-nucleotidase/CD73, which catalyze the breakdown of extracellular ATP into adenosine, and on the subsequent activation of different subtypes of adenosine receptors with mixed findings of antitumor and protumor effects. New findings, needed for more effective therapeutic approaches, require consideration of redundant pathways controlling intratumoral adenosine levels, including the alternative NAD-inactivating pathway through the CD38-ectonucleotide pyrophosphatase phosphodiesterase (ENPP)1-CD73 axis, the counteracting ATP-regenerating ectoenzymatic pathway, and cellular adenosine uptake and its phosphorylation by adenosine kinase. This review provides a holistic view of extracellular and intracellular adenosine metabolism as an integrated complex network and summarizes recent data on the underlying mechanisms through which adenosine and its precursors ATP and ADP control cancer immunosurveillance, tumor angiogenesis, lymphangiogenesis, cancer-associated thrombosis, blood flow, and tumor perfusion. Special attention is given to differences and commonalities in the purinome of different cancers, heterogeneity of the tumor microenvironment, subcellular compartmentalization of the adenosine system, and novel roles of purine-converting enzymes as targets for cancer therapy. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: The discovery of the role of adenosine as immune checkpoint regulator in cancer has led to the development of novel therapeutic strategies targeting extracellular adenosine metabolism and signaling in multiple clinical trials and preclinical models. Here we identify major gaps in knowledge that need to be filled to improve the therapeutic gain from agents targeting key components of the adenosine metabolic network and, on this basis, provide a holistic view of the cancer purinome as a complex and integrated network.

Isolation of vasa vasorum endothelial cells from pulmonary artery adventitia: Implementation to vascular biology research.

Isolated endothelial cells are valuable in vitro model for vascular research. At present, investigation of disease-relevant changes in vascular endothelium at the molecular level requires established endothelial cell cultures, preserving vascular bed-specific phenotypic characteristics. Vasa vasorum (VV) form a microvascular network around large blood vessels, in both the pulmonary and systemic circulations, that are critically important for maintaining the integrity and oxygen supply of the vascular wall. However, despite the pathophysiological significance of the VV, methods for the isolation and culture of vasa vasorum endothelial cells (VVEC) have not yet been reported. In our prior studies, we demonstrated the presence of hypoxia-induced angiogenic expansion of the VV in the pulmonary artery (PA) of neonatal calves; an observation which has been followed by a series of in vitro studies on isolated PA VVEC. Here we present a detailed protocol for reproducible isolation, purification, and culture of PA VVEC. We show these cells to express generic endothelial markers, (vWF, eNOS, VEGFR2, Tie1, and CD31), as well as progenitor markers (CD34 and CD133), bind lectin Lycopersicon Esculentum, and incorporate acetylated low-density lipoproteins labeled with acetylated LDL (DiI-Ac-LDL). qPCR analysis additionally revealed the expression of CD105, VCAM-1, ICAM-1, MCAM, and NCAM. Ultrastructural electron microscopy and immunofluorescence staining demonstrated that VVEC are morphologically characterized by a developed actin and microtubular cytoskeleton, mitochondrial network, abundant intracellular vacuolar/secretory system, and cell-surface filopodia. VVEC exhibit exponential growth in culture and can be mitogenically activated by multiple growth factors. Thus, our protocol provides the opportunity for VVEC isolation from the PA, and potentially from other large vessels, enabling advances in VV research.

CD73 controls ocular adenosine levels and protects retina from light-induced phototoxicity.

ATP and adenosine have emerged as important signaling molecules involved in vascular remodeling, retinal functioning and neurovascular coupling in the mammalian eye. However, little is known about the regulatory mechanisms of purinergic signaling in the eye. Here, we used three-dimensional multiplexed imaging, in situ enzyme histochemistry, flow cytometric analysis, and single cell transcriptomics to characterize the whole pattern of purine metabolism in mouse and human eyes. This study identified ecto-nucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolase-1 (NTPDase1/CD39), NTPDase2, and ecto-5'-nucleotidase/CD73 as major ocular ecto-nucleotidases, which are selectively expressed in the photoreceptor layer (CD73), optic nerve head, retinal vasculature and microglia (CD39), as well as in neuronal processes and cornea (CD39, NTPDase2). Specifically, microglial cells can create a spatially arranged network in the retinal parenchyma by extending and retracting their branched CD39high/CD73low processes and forming local "purinergic junctions" with CD39low/CD73- neuronal cell bodies and CD39high/CD73- retinal blood vessels. The relevance of the CD73-adenosine pathway was confirmed by flash electroretinography showing that pharmacological inhibition of adenosine production by injection of highly selective CD73 inhibitor PSB-12489 in the vitreous cavity of dark-adapted mouse eyes rendered the animals hypersensitive to prolonged bright light, manifested as decreased a-wave and b-wave amplitudes. The impaired electrical responses of retinal cells in PSB-12489-treated mice were not accompanied by decrease in total thickness of the retina or death of photoreceptors and retinal ganglion cells. Our study thus defines ocular adenosine metabolism as a complex and spatially integrated network and further characterizes the critical role of CD73 in maintaining the functional activity of retinal cells.

Compartmentalization of adenosine metabolism in cancer cells and its modulation during acute hypoxia.

Extracellular adenosine mediates diverse anti-inflammatory, angiogenic and vasoactive effects, and has become an important therapeutic target for cancer, which has been translated into clinical trials. This study was designed to comprehensively assess adenosine metabolism in prostate and breast cancer cells. We identified cellular adenosine turnover as a complex cascade, comprising (1) the ectoenzymatic breakdown of ATP via sequential ecto-nucleotide pyrophosphatase/phosphodiesterase-1 (NPP1, officially known as ENPP1), ecto-5'-nucleotidase (CD73, also known as NT5E), and adenosine deaminase reactions, and ATP re-synthesis through a counteracting adenylate kinase and members of the nucleoside diphosphate kinase (NDPK, also known as NME/NM23) family; (2) the uptake of nucleotide-derived adenosine via equilibrative nucleoside transporters; and (3) the intracellular adenosine phosphorylation into ATP by adenosine kinase and other nucleotide kinases. The exposure of cancer cells to 1% O2 for 24 h triggered an ∼2-fold upregulation of CD73, without affecting nucleoside transporters, adenosine kinase activity and cellular ATP content. The ability of adenosine to inhibit the tumor-initiating potential of breast cancer cells via a receptor-independent mechanism was confirmed in vivo using a xenograft mouse model. The existence of redundant pathways controlling extracellular and intracellular adenosine provides a sufficient justification for reexamination of the current concepts of cellular purine homeostasis and signaling in cancer.This article has an associated First Person interview with the first author of the paper.

Adenosine activates brown adipose tissue and recruits beige adipocytes via A2A receptors.

Brown adipose tissue (BAT) is specialized in energy expenditure, making it a potential target for anti-obesity therapies. Following exposure to cold, BAT is activated by the sympathetic nervous system with concomitant release of catecholamines and activation of ß-adrenergic receptors. Because BAT therapies based on cold exposure or ß-adrenergic agonists are clinically not feasible, alternative strategies must be explored. Purinergic co-transmission might be involved in sympathetic control of BAT and previous studies reported inhibitory effects of the purinergic transmitter adenosine in BAT from hamster or rat. However, the role of adenosine in human BAT is unknown. Here we show that adenosine activates human and murine brown adipocytes at low nanomolar concentrations. Adenosine is released in BAT during stimulation of sympathetic nerves as well as from brown adipocytes. The adenosine A2A receptor is the most abundant adenosine receptor in human and murine BAT. Pharmacological blockade or genetic loss of A2A receptors in mice causes a decrease in BAT-dependent thermogenesis, whereas treatment with A2A agonists significantly increases energy expenditure. Moreover, pharmacological stimulation of A2A receptors or injection of lentiviral vectors expressing the A2A receptor into white fat induces brown-like cells-so-called beige adipocytes. Importantly, mice fed a high-fat diet and treated with an A2A agonist are leaner with improved glucose tolerance. Taken together, our results demonstrate that adenosine-A2A signalling plays an unexpected physiological role in sympathetic BAT activation and protects mice from diet-induced obesity. Those findings reveal new possibilities for developing novel obesity therapies.

Endothelial cells cope with hypoxia-induced depletion of ATP via activation of cellular purine turnover and phosphotransfer networks.

Intravascular ATP and adenosine have emerged as important regulators of endothelial barrier function, vascular remodeling and neovascularization at various pathological states, including hypoxia, inflammation and oxidative stress. By using human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC) and bovine vasa vasorum endothelial cells (VVEC) as representatives of macro- and microvessel phenotypes, this study was undertaken to evaluate cellular mechanisms contributing to physiological adaptation of vascular endothelium to hypoxia, with a particular emphasis on ectoenzymatic purine-converting activities and their link to intracellular ATP homeostasis and signaling pathways. Nucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolase-1 (NTPDase1/CD39), ecto-5'-nucleotidase/CD73 and ecto-adenylate kinase activities were determined by thin-layer chromatography (TLC) with 3H-labelled nucleotide substrates. Exposure of HUVEC and VVEC to 1% O2 for 4-24 h triggered rather moderate activation of ATP breakdown into adenosine via the CD39-CD73 axis. Additional TLC analysis of salvage pathways revealed the enhanced ability of hypoxic HUVEC to convert cell-incorporated [3H]adenosine into [3H]ADP/ATP. Furthermore, following a period of hypoxia, HUVEC underwent concurrent changes in intracellular signaling manifested in the depletion of putative ATP stores and targeted up-regulation of phospho-p53, p70S6K/mTOR and other tyrosine kinases. The revealed complex implication of both extrinsic and intrinsic mechanisms into a tuned hypoxia-induced control of purine homeostasis and signaling may open up further research for the development of pharmacological treatments to improve endothelial cell function under disease conditions associated with a loss of cellular ATP during oxygen deprivation.

Beneficial Role of Erythrocyte Adenosine A2B Receptor-Mediated AMP-Activated Protein Kinase Activation in High-Altitude Hypoxia.

BACKGROUND: High altitude is a challenging condition caused by insufficient oxygen supply. Inability to adjust to hypoxia may lead to pulmonary edema, stroke, cardiovascular dysfunction, and even death. Thus, understanding the molecular basis of adaptation to high altitude may reveal novel therapeutics to counteract the detrimental consequences of hypoxia. METHODS: Using high-throughput, unbiased metabolomic profiling, we report that the metabolic pathway responsible for production of erythrocyte 2,3-bisphosphoglycerate (2,3-BPG), a negative allosteric regulator of hemoglobin-O2 binding affinity, was significantly induced in 21 healthy humans within 2 hours of arrival at 5260 m and further increased after 16 days at 5260 m. RESULTS: This finding led us to discover that plasma adenosine concentrations and soluble CD73 activity rapidly increased at high altitude and were associated with elevated erythrocyte 2,3-BPG levels and O2 releasing capacity. Mouse genetic studies demonstrated that elevated CD73 contributed to hypoxia-induced adenosine accumulation and that elevated adenosine-mediated erythrocyte A2B adenosine receptor activation was beneficial by inducing 2,3-BPG production and triggering O2 release to prevent multiple tissue hypoxia, inflammation, and pulmonary vascular leakage. Mechanistically, we demonstrated that erythrocyte AMP-activated protein kinase was activated in humans at high altitude and that AMP-activated protein kinase is a key protein functioning downstream of the A2B adenosine receptor, phosphorylating and activating BPG mutase and thus inducing 2,3-BPG production and O2 release from erythrocytes. Significantly, preclinical studies demonstrated that activation of AMP-activated protein kinase enhanced BPG mutase activation, 2,3-BPG production, and O2 release capacity in CD73-deficient mice, in erythrocyte-specific A2B adenosine receptor knockouts, and in wild-type mice and in turn reduced tissue hypoxia and inflammation. CONCLUSIONS: Together, human and mouse studies reveal novel mechanisms of hypoxia adaptation and potential therapeutic approaches for counteracting hypoxia-induced tissue damage.

Aberrant circulating levels of purinergic signaling markers are associated with several key aspects of peripheral atherosclerosis and thrombosis.

RATIONALE: Purinergic signaling plays an important role in inflammation and vascular integrity, but little is known about purinergic mechanisms during the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis in humans. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study is to study markers of purinergic signaling in a cohort of patients with peripheral artery disease. METHODS AND RESULTS: Plasma ATP and ADP levels and serum nucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolase-1 (NTPDase1/CD39) and ecto-5'-nucleotidase/CD73 activities were measured in 226 patients with stable peripheral artery disease admitted for nonurgent invasive imaging and treatment. The major findings were that ATP, ADP, and CD73 values were higher in atherosclerotic patients than in controls without clinically evident peripheral artery disease (P<0.0001). Low CD39 activity was associated with disease progression (P=0.01). In multivariable linear regression models, high CD73 activity was associated with chronic hypoxia (P=0.001). Statin use was associated with lower ADP (P=0.041) and tended to associate with higher CD73 (P=0.054), while lower ATP was associated with the use of angiotensin receptor blockers (P=0.015). CONCLUSIONS: Purinergic signaling plays an important role in peripheral artery disease progression. Elevated levels of circulating ATP and ADP are especially associated with atherosclerotic diseases of younger age and smoking. The antithrombotic and anti-inflammatory effects of statins may partly be explained by their ability to lower ADP. We suggest that the prothrombotic nature of smoking could be a cause of elevated ADP, and this may explain why cardiovascular patients who smoke benefit from platelet P2Y12 receptor antagonists more than their nonsmoking peers.

Enzymes involved in metabolism of extracellular nucleotides and nucleosides: functional implications and measurement of activities.

Extracellular nucleotides and nucleosides mediate diverse signaling effects in virtually all organs and tissues. Most models of purinergic signaling depend on functional interactions between distinct processes, including (i) the release of endogenous ATP and other nucleotides, (ii) triggering of signaling events via a series of nucleotide-selective ligand-gated P2X and metabotropic P2Y receptors as well as adenosine receptors and (iii) ectoenzymatic interconversion of purinergic agonists. The duration and magnitude of purinergic signaling is governed by a network of ectoenzymes, including the enzymes of the nucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolase (NTPDase) family, the nucleotide pyrophosphatase/phosphodiesterase (NPP) family, ecto-5'-nucleotidase/CD73, tissue-nonspecific alkaline phosphatase (TNAP), prostatic acid phosphatase (PAP) and other alkaline and acid phosphatases, adenosine deaminase (ADA) and purine nucleoside phosphorylase (PNP). Along with "classical" inactivating ectoenzymes, recent data provide evidence for the co-existence of a counteracting ATP-regenerating pathway comprising the enzymes of the adenylate kinase (AK) and nucleoside diphosphate kinase (NDPK/NME/NM23) families and ATP synthase. This review describes recent advances in this field, with special emphasis on purine-converting ectoenzymes as a complex and integrated network regulating purinergic signaling in such (patho)physiological states as immunomodulation, inflammation, tumorigenesis, arterial calcification and other diseases. The second part of this review provides a comprehensive overview and basic principles of major approaches employed for studying purinergic activities, including spectrophotometric Pi-liberating assays, high-performance liquid chromatographic (HPLC) and thin-layer chromatographic (TLC) analyses of purine substrates and metabolites, capillary electrophoresis, bioluminescent, fluorometric and electrochemical enzyme-coupled assays, histochemical staining, and further emphasizes their advantages, drawbacks and suitability for assaying a particular catalytic reaction.

Ecto-5'-nucleotidase/CD73 enhances endothelial barrier function and sprouting in blood but not lymphatic vasculature.

CD73/ecto-5'-nucleotidase is a key enzyme in the regulation of purinergic signaling and inflammatory reactions. It hydrolyzes extracellular AMP into adenosine, which dampens immune cell activation, and reduces leukocyte trafficking. By comparing CD73 expression and function in mononuclear and endothelial cells (ECs) of blood and lymph, we show that extracellular purines and CD73 activity have differential effects in these two vascular systems. We found that CD8-positive T lymphocytes and CD19-positive B lymphocytes in human lymph expressed high levels of CD73 and other purinergic enzymes and adenosine receptors. Soluble CD73 was less abundant in human lymph than in serum, whereas CD73 activity was higher in afferent lymphatic ECs than in blood ECs. Adenosine signaling improved barrier function and induced sprouting of human blood, but not lymphatic, ECs in vitro. Similarly, using CD73-deficient mice we found that CD73 controls only blood vascular permeability at selected lymphoid organs under physiological conditions. Thus, both vascular and lymphatic arms of the immune system synthesize the components of purinergic signaling system, but surprisingly they use CD73 differentially to control endothelial permeability and sprouting.

NTPDase1/CD39 and aberrant purinergic signalling in the pathogenesis of COPD.

Purinergic receptor activation via extracellular ATP is involved in the pathogenesis of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Nucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolase-1/CD39 hydrolyses extracellular ATP and modulates P2 receptor signalling.We aimed to investigate the expression and function of CD39 in the pathogenesis of cigarette smoke-induced lung inflammation in patients and preclinical mouse models. CD39 expression and soluble ATPase activity were quantified in sputum and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) cells in nonsmokers, smokers and COPD patients or mice with cigarette smoke-induced lung inflammation. In mice, pulmonary ATP and cytokine concentrations, inflammation and emphysema were analysed in the presence or absence of CD39.Following acute cigarette smoke exposure CD39 was upregulated in BALF cells in smokers with further increases in COPD patients. Acute cigarette smoke exposure induced CD39 upregulation in murine lungs and BALF cells, and ATP degradation was accelerated in airway fluids. CD39 inhibition and deficiency led to augmented lung inflammation; treatment with ATPase during cigarette smoke exposure prevented emphysema.Pulmonary CD39 expression and activity are increased in COPD. CD39 deficiency leads to enhanced emphysema in mice, while external administration of a functional CD39 analogue partially rescues the phenotype. The compensatory upregulation of pulmonary CD39 might serve as a protective mechanism in cigarette smoke-induced lung damage.

Nucleotide homeostasis and purinergic nociceptive signaling in rat meninges in migraine-like conditions.

Extracellular ATP is suspected to contribute to migraine pain but regulatory mechanisms controlling pro-nociceptive purinergic mechanisms in the meninges remain unknown. We studied the peculiarities of metabolic and signaling pathways of ATP and its downstream metabolites in rat meninges and in cultured trigeminal cells exposed to the migraine mediator calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP). Under resting conditions, meningeal ATP and ADP remained at low nanomolar levels, whereas extracellular AMP and adenosine concentrations were one-two orders higher. CGRP increased ATP and ADP levels in meninges and trigeminal cultures and reduced adenosine concentration in trigeminal cells. Degradation rates for exogenous nucleotides remained similar in control and CGRP-treated meninges, indicating that CGRP triggers nucleotide release without affecting nucleotide-inactivating pathways. Lead nitrate-based enzyme histochemistry of whole mount meninges revealed the presence of high ATPase, ADPase, and AMPase activities, primarily localized in the medial meningeal artery. ATP and ADP induced large intracellular Ca(2+) transients both in neurons and in glial cells whereas AMP and adenosine were ineffective. In trigeminal glia, ATP partially operated via P2X7 receptors. ATP, but not other nucleotides, activated nociceptive spikes in meningeal trigeminal nerve fibers providing a rationale for high degradation rate of pro-nociceptive ATP. Pro-nociceptive effect of ATP in meningeal nerves was reproduced by α,ß-meATP operating via P2X3 receptors. Collectively, extracellular ATP, which level is controlled by CGRP, can persistently activate trigeminal nerves in meninges which considered as the origin site of migraine headache. These data are consistent with the purinergic hypothesis of migraine pain and suggest new targets against trigeminal pain.

Early prediction of persistent organ failure by soluble CD73 in patients with acute pancreatitis*.

OBJECTIVE: New biomarkers are needed to better predict the severity of acute pancreatitis. CD73/ecto-5'-nucleotidase is an enzyme that generates adenosine, which dampens inflammation and improves vascular barrier function in several disease models. CD73 also circulates in a soluble form in the blood. We studied whether levels of soluble form of CD73 predict the development of organ failure in acute pancreatitis. DESIGN: A prospective cohort study of patients with acute pancreatitis from 2003 to 2007. SETTING: Admissions to the biggest tertiary care hospital in Finland. PATIENTS: One hundred sixty-one patients with acute pancreatitis, of which 107 were subclassified according to the revised Atlanta criteria into mild, 29 into moderately severe and 25 into severe. INTERVENTIONS: None. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Serum and blood cell samples were collected at admission. Protein levels of soluble form of CD73 in serum were determined using a novel enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, activity of soluble form of CD73 using radioactive enzyme assays, and CD73 messenger RNA levels from leukocytes using quantitative polymerase chain reaction. Activity and protein concentration of soluble form of CD73, and messenger RNA level of CD73 all decreased along with the disease severity (p ≤ 0.01 for all). The activity of soluble form of CD73 at admission predicted the development of the severe pancreatitis in different groups of the patients. The area under the receiver-operating characteristic curve value for activity of soluble form of CD73 was 0.65 (95% CI, 0.51-0.80) among a subgroup of patients comprising moderately severe and severe disease, 0.79 (95% CI, 0.69-0.88) among all patients including mild pancreatitis, and 0.75 (95% CI, 0.60-0.89) among patients who had no signs of organ failure (modified Marshall score < 2) at admission. Especially, in the last-mentioned group, activity of soluble form of CD73 was better than C-reactive protein or creatinine in predicting the severe pancreat CONCLUSIONS: : Activity of soluble form of CD73 at admission to hospital has prognostic value in predicting the development of the severe form of acute pancreatitis.

Postnatal development and LPS responsiveness of pulmonary adenosine receptor expression and of adenosine-metabolizing enzymes in mice.

BACKGROUND: Adenosine levels are regulated by ecto-5'-nucleotidase/CD73 and adenosine deaminase (ADA). Adenosine regulates endothelial permeability and anti-inflammatory responses via adenosine receptors. Here, the adenosine receptors and purine-converting enzymes were studied during postnatal development and inflammation. METHODS: Newborn, 1-, 10-, 14-d-old and adult C57BL/6 mice were challenged intraperitoneally (i.p.) with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) for 6 h. The inflammatory response was evaluated by histochemistry. Expression levels of adenosine receptors (A1, A2A, A2B, and A3), CD73, and ADA were measured by quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction. A1 was studied by immunohistochemistry, and enzyme activities were analyzed by thin-layer chromatography. RESULTS: LPS caused respiratory distress in newborns within 24 h. LPS induced neutrophils at the basal stage and alveolar congestion. Low activity and expression of CD73 increased after birth. Expression of ADA after LPS increased 16-fold in adults and 2-fold in newborns (P < 0.05). A1 expression was high in newborns and increased after LPS (P < 0.05). A1 was localized to endothelial membranes. A2A decreased after LPS in newborns and increased in adults (P < 0.05). The expression of A3 increased in newborns and adults after LPS. CONCLUSION: Low pulmonary CD73 expression, LPS-induced suppression of A2A, LPS-induced increase of A1 expression, and severe respiratory distress were distinguishing responses in the newborns from those in the adults.

Consequences of the lack of CD73 and prostatic acid phosphatase in the lymphoid organs.

CD73, ecto-5'-nucleotidase, is the key enzyme catalyzing the conversion of extracellular AMP to adenosine that controls vascular permeability and immunosuppression. Also prostatic acid phosphatase (PAP) possesses ecto-5'-nucleotidase/AMPase activity and is present in leukocytes. However, its role related to immune system is unknown. Therefore, we analyzed enzymatic activities and leukocyte subtypes of CD73 and PAP knockouts and generated CD73/PAP double knockout mice to elucidate the contribution of CD73 and PAP to immunological parameters. Enzymatic assays confirmed the ability of recombinant human PAP to hydrolyze [(3)H]AMP, although at much lower rate than human CD73. Nevertheless, 5'-nucleotidase/AMPase activity in splenocytes and lymphocytes from PAP(-/-) mice tended to be lower than in wild-type controls, suggesting potential contribution of PAP, along with CD73, into lymphoid AMP metabolism ex vivo. Single knockouts had decreased number of CD4(+)/CD25(+)/FoxP3 (+) regulatory T cells in thymus and CD73/PAP double knockouts exhibited reduced percentages of CD4(+) cells in spleen, regulatory T cells in lymph nodes and thymus, and CD4(+) and CD8(+) cells in blood. These findings suggest that PAP has a synergistic role together with CD73 in the immune system by contributing to the balance of leukocyte subpopulations and especially to the number of regulatory T cells in lymph nodes and thymus.

Enzyme-coupled assays for simultaneous detection of nanomolar ATP, ADP, AMP, adenosine, inosine and pyrophosphate concentrations in extracellular fluids.

Purinergic signaling cascade includes the release of endogenous ATP and other agonists by chemical and mechanical stimuli, modulation of diverse cellular functions and subsequent ectoenzymatic inactivation. Basal release of extracellular purines and its physiological relevance remain controversial. Here we employed a combination of enzyme-coupled approaches for simultaneous bioluminescent (ATP, ADP, PP(i)) and fluorometric (AMP), adenosine, inosine, hypoxanthine) measurements of ATP and its metabolites without additional manipulations or derivatization of sampled biological fluids. By using these sensing techniques, extracellular purines were determined in various cells and tissues both at resting and pro-inflammatory conditions. The results obtained revealed the ability of endothelial, lymphoid and tumor cells to maintain extracellular ATP, ADP and adenosine at certain characteristic nanomolar levels. By quantifying the amounts of endogenously released and/or exogenously applied purines and their metabolites, these sensing techniques may be applied for evaluating purine-converting pathways on the cell surfaces and also for ex vivo analysis of purine homeostasis in the intact tissues. Furthermore, we provide novel insight into the mechanisms underlying tumorigenic effects of ATP by demonstrating the ability of metastatic prostate carcinoma PC3 and breast cancer MDA-MB-231 cells to maintain PP(i), which derives from extracellular ATP in the course of nucleotide pyrophosphatase/phosphodiesterase reaction. Collectively, the results imply a complex pattern of nucleotide turnover where extracellular ATP, ADP and adenosine are maintained at steady-state levels via conunterbalanced release and inactivation of ATP and other purines, and further suggest the importance of basal agonist release for continuous activation and/or desensitization of purinergic receptors.

Impaired ATP-induced coronary blood flow and diminished aortic NTPDase activity precede lesion formation in apolipoprotein E-deficient mice.

Intravascular ATP and ADP are important regulators of vascular tone, thrombosis, inflammation, and angiogenesis. This study was undertaken to evaluate the contribution of purinergic signaling to disturbed vasodilation and vascular remodeling during atherosclerosis progression. We used apolipoprotein E-deficient (Apoe(-/-)) mice as an appropriate experimental model for atherosclerosis. Noninvasive transthoracic Doppler echocardiography imaging with adenosine, ATP, and other nucleotides and nonhydrolyzable P2 receptor agonists and antagonists suggests that ATP regulates coronary blood flow in mice through activation of P2Y (most likely, endothelial ATP/UTP-selective P2Y(2)) receptors, rather than via its dephosphorylation to adenosine. Strikingly, compared to age-matched wild-type controls, young (10- to 15-week-old) Apoe(-/-) mice displayed diminished coronary reactivity in response to ATP but not adenosine. The impaired hyperemic response to ATP persisted in older (20- to 30-week-old) Apoe(-/-) mice, which were additionally characterized by mild atherosclerosis (as ascertained by aortic Oil Red O staining) and a systemic increase in plasma ATP and ADP levels. Concurrent thin-layer chromatographic analysis of nucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolase (NTPDase) and ecto-5'-nucleotidase/CD73 activities in thoracic aortas, lymph nodes, spleen, and serum revealed that aortic NTPDase was decreased by 40% to 50% in a tissue-specific manner both in young and mature Apoe(-/-) mice. Collectively, disordered purinergic signaling in Apoe(-/-) mice may serve as important prerequisite for impaired blood flow, local accumulation of ATP and ADP at sites of atherogenesis, and eventually, the exacerbation of atherosclerosis.

Different role of CD73 in leukocyte trafficking via blood and lymph vessels.

CD73 is involved in the extracellular ATP metabolism by dephosphorylating extracellular AMP to adenosine and thus regulating permeability of the blood vessels and leukocyte traffic into the tissues. It is also present on lymphatic vessels where its distribution and function have not been characterized. We found that CD73 is expressed on a subpopulation of afferent lymph vessels but is absent on efferent lymphatics, unlike LYVE-1 and podoplanin, which are expressed on both types of lymphatics. The extracellular nucleotide metabolism on lymphatic endothelium differs from that on blood vessel endothelium as lymphatic endothelium has lower NTPDase and higher ecto-5'-nucleotidase/CD73 activity than blood vascular endothelium. In knockout mice, the lack of CD73 on lymphocytes decreases migration of lymphocytes to the draining lymph nodes more than 50% while CD73-deficient lymph vessels mediate lymphocyte trafficking as efficiently as the wild-type lymphatics. Thus, although endothelial CD73 is important for permeability and leukocyte extravasation in blood vessels, it does not have a role in these functions on lymphatics. Instead, lymphocyte CD73 is intimately involved in lymphocyte migration via afferent lymphatic vessels.

Metabolism of circulating ADP in the bloodstream is mediated via integrated actions of soluble adenylate kinase-1 and NTPDase1/CD39 activities.

Extracellular ATP and ADP trigger inflammatory, vasodilatatory, and prothrombotic signaling events in the vasculature, and their turnover is governed by networks of membrane-associated enzymes. The contribution of soluble activities to intravascular nucleotide homeostasis remains controversial. By using thin-layer chromatographic assays, we revealed transphosphorylation of [γ-(32)P]ATP and AMP by human and murine sera, which was progressively inhibited by specific adenylate kinase (AK) inhibitor Ap(5)A. This phosphotransfer reaction was diminished markedly in serum from knockout mice lacking the major AK isoform, AK1, and in human serum immunodepleted of AK1. We also showed that ∼75% ADP in cell-free serum is metabolized via reversible AK1 reaction 2ADP ↔ ATP + AMP. The generated ATP and AMP are then metabolized through the coupled nucleotide pyrophosphatase/phosphodiesterase and 5'-nucleotidase/CD73 reactions, respectively. Constitutive presence of another nucleotide-converting enzyme, nucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolase-1 (NTPDase1, known as CD39), was ascertained by the relative deficiency of serum from CD39-null mice to dephosphorylate [(3)H]ADP and [γ-(32)P]ATP, and also by diminished [(3)H]ADP hydrolysis by human serum pretreated with NTPDase1 inhibitors, POM-1 and ARL-67156. In summary, we have identified hitherto unrecognized soluble forms of AK1 and NTPDase1/CD39 that contribute in the active cycling between the principal platelet-recruiting agent ADP and other circulating nucleotides.

Altered purinergic signaling in CD73-deficient mice inhibits tumor progression.

CD73/ecto-5'-nucleotidase dephosphorylates extracellular AMP into adenosine, and it is a key enzyme in the regulation of adenosinergic signaling. The contribution of host CD73 to tumor growth and anti-tumor immunity has not been studied. Here, we show that under physiological conditions CD73-deficient mice had significantly elevated ATPase and ADPase activities in LN T cells. In a melanoma model, the growth of primary tumors and formation of metastasis were significantly attenuated in mice lacking CD73. Among tumor-infiltrating leukocytes there were fewer Tregs and mannose receptor-positive macrophages, and increased IFN-γ and NOS2 mRNA production in CD73-deficient mice. Treatment of tumor-bearing animals with soluble apyrase, an enzyme hydrolyzing ATP and ADP, significantly inhibited tumor growth and accumulation of intratumoral Tregs and mannose receptor-positive macrophages in the WT C57BL/6 mice but not in the CD73-deficient mice. Pharmacological inhibition of CD73 with α,ß-methylene-adenosine-5'-diphosphate in WT mice retarded tumor progression similarly to the genetic deletion of CD73. Together these data show that increased pericellular ATP degradation in the absence of CD73 activity in the host cells is a novel mechanism controlling anti-tumor immunity and tumor progression, and that the purinergic balance can be manipulated therapeutically to inhibit tumor growth.