Effect of LSR polymorphism on blood lipid levels and age-specific epistatic interaction with the APOE common polymorphism.

The lipolysis stimulated lipoprotein receptor (LSR) is an apolipoprotein (Apo) B and ApoE receptor that participates in the removal of triglyceride-rich lipoproteins during the postprandial phase. LSR gene is located upstream of APOE, an important risk factor for cardiovascular disease (CVD). Since the APOE common polymorphism significantly affects the variability of lipid metabolism, this study aimed to determine the potential impact of a functional SNP rs916147 in LSR gene on lipid traits in healthy subjects and to investigate potential epistatic interaction between LSR and APOE. Unrelated healthy adults (N = 432) and children (N = 328, <18 years old) from the STANISLAS Family Study were used. Age-specific epistasis was observed between APOE and LSR, reversing the protective effect of APOE ε2 allele on cholesterol, ApoE and low-density lipoprotein levels (ß: .114, P: .777 × 10-8 , ß: .125, P: .639 × 10-3 , ß: .059, P: .531 × 10-3 , respectively). This interaction was verified in an independent adult population (n = 1744). These results highlight the importance of the LSR polymorphism and reveal the existence of complex molecular links between LSR and ApoE for the regulation of lipid levels, revealing potential new pathways of interest in type III hyperlipidemia and its involvement in CVD pathology.

A murine model of cow's milk protein-induced allergic reaction: use for safety assessment of hidden milk allergens.

BACKGROUND: Masked allergens in processed food products can lead to severe allergic reactions following unintentional ingestion. We sought to develop a murine model for the detection of hidden cow's milk proteins (CMP). This study aimed to induce cow's milk allergy in mice, to characterize the anaphylaxis induced by CMP in this model, and to validate its reliability using three margarines manufactured with (A) or without (B, C) milk, sharing the same production line. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Three-week-old BALB/c mice were sensitized intragastrically with CMP plus cholera toxin and boosted 6 times at weekly intervals. CMP-sensitization status was monitored by skin tests, and measurement of CMP-specific IgE and IgG1 levels. On day 44, the minimal threshold of clinical reactivity to CMP in terms of anaphylaxis was determined by performing a dose response of intraperitoneal CMP challenge. Under the same conditions, anaphylaxis was evaluated in CMP-sensitized mice after challenge with protein extracts of margarines A, B or C. RESULTS: Sensitization to CMP was demonstrated by positive skin tests and increased CMP-specific IgE and IgG1. The minimal clinical reactivity threshold corresponding to 0.1 mg CMP elicited detectable anaphylaxis evidenced by clinical symptoms, a decrease in breathing frequency, and increased plasma histamine upon challenge. Similarly, challenges with margarine A containing CMP demonstrated anaphylaxis, whereas those with B or C did not elicit any detectable allergic reaction. CONCLUSION: This study shows that our murine model of CMP-induced anaphylaxis is useful for investigating the allergenic activity and the assessment of margarines with respect to milk.

Mechanism of plasma cholesteryl ester transfer in hypertriglyceridemia.

Plasma net cholesteryl ester (CE) transfer and optimum cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP) activity were determined in primary hypertriglyceridemic (n = 11) and normolipidemic (n = 15) individuals. The hypertriglyceridemic group demonstrated threefold greater net CE transfer leading to enhanced accumulation of CE in VLDL. This increased net transfer was not accompanied by a change in CETP activity. In normolipidemia, but not in hypertriglyceridemia, net CE transfer correlated with VLDL triglyceride (r = 0.92, P less than 0.001). In contrast, net CE transfer in hypertriglyceridemia, but not in normolipidemia, correlated with CETP activity (r = 0.73, P less than 0.01). Correction of hypertriglyceridemia with bezafibrate reduced net CE transfer towards normal and restored the correlation with VLDL triglyceride (r = 0.90, P less than 0.005) while suppressing the correlation with CETP activity. That net CE transfer depends on VLDL concentration was confirmed by an increase of net CE transfer in normolipidemic plasma supplemented with purified VLDL. Supplementation of purified CETP to normolipidemic plasma did not stimulate net CE transfer. In contrast, net CE transfer was enhanced by addition of CETP to both plasma supplemented with VLDL and hypertriglyceridemic plasma. Thus, in normal subjects, VLDL concentration determines the rate of net CE transfer. CETP becomes rate limiting as VLDL concentration increases, i.e., in hypertriglyceridemia.

Inhibition of cholesteryl ester transfer protein activity by monoclonal antibody. Effects on cholesteryl ester formation and neutral lipid mass transfer in human plasma.

We have employed a neutralizing monoclonal antibody, prepared against the Mr 74,000 cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP), to investigate the regulation of lecithin:cholesterol acyltransferase (LCAT) activity by cholesteryl ester (CE) transfer, and also to determine which lipoproteins are substrates for LCAT in human plasma. The incubation of normolipidemic plasma led to transfer of CE from HDL to VLDL, and of triglycerides from VLDL to LDL and HDL. This net mass transfer of neutral lipids between the lipoproteins was eliminated by the monoclonal antibody. However, CE transfer inhibition had no effect on the rate of plasma cholesterol esterification in plasma incubated from 10 min to 24 h at 37 degrees C. In the absence of CE transfer, HDL and LDL exhibited cholesterol esterification activity, whereas VLDL did not. The rate of CE formation in HDL was three to four times greater than in LDL during the first hour of incubation, but CE formation in HDL decreased after 6-8 h, while that in LDL continued. Thus, (a) the Mr 74,000 CETP is responsible for all neutral lipid mass transfer in incubated human plasma, (b) the rate of CE formation in plasma is not regulated by CE transfer from HDL to other lipoproteins, and (c) HDL is the major initial substrate for LCAT; LDL assumes a more significant role only after prolonged incubation of plasma.

Acquisition of lipoproteins in the procyclic form of Trypanosoma brucei.

The procyclic form of Trypanosoma brucei binds and internalizes bovine high density lipoprotein (HDL) particles in a saturable process; the binding and uptake of (125)I-labeled HDL are inhibited by excess unlabeled HDL. We calculated that each procyclic trypanosome exposes approximately 1.0 x 10(6) binding sites for bovine HDL, with an equilibrium dissociation constant (Kd) of approximately 1.26 x 10(-7) M. Uptake of HDL particles does not occur at 4 degrees C. At 28 degrees C, a significant amount of the internalized HDL particles were efficiently degraded through a process that is sensitive to the presence of 50 microM chloroquine. These results suggested that the uptake of HDL particles in procyclic T. brucei may occur via receptor mediated endocytosis, leading to proteolytic degradation of the particles in an acidic and endocytic compartment.

Free fatty acids activate a high-affinity saturable pathway for degradation of low-density lipoproteins in fibroblasts from a subject homozygous for familial hypercholesterolemia.

This paper describes a mechanism for degradation of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) in fibroblasts unable to synthesize the LDL receptor. In this cell line, long-chain free fatty acids (FFA) activated 125I-LDL uptake; unsaturated FFA were the most efficient. The first step of this pathway was the binding of LDL apoB to a single class of sites on the plasma membrane and was reversible in the presence of greater than or equal to 10 mM suramin. Binding equilibrium was achieved after a 60-90-min incubation at 37 degrees C with 1 mM oleate; under these conditions, the apparent Kd for 125I-LDL binding was 12.3 micrograms/mL. Both cholesterol-rich (LDL and beta-VLDL) and triglyceride-rich (VLDL) lipoproteins, but not apoE-free HDL, efficiently competed with 125I-LDL for this FFA-induced binding site. After LDL bound to the cell surface, they were internalized and delivered to lysosomes; chloroquine inhibited subsequent proteolysis of LDL and thereby increased the cellular content of the particles. A physiological oleate to albumin molar ratio, i.e., 1:1 (25 microM oleate and 2 mg/mL albumin), was sufficient to significantly (p less than 0.01) activate all three steps of this alternate pathway: for example, 644 +/- 217 (25 microM oleate) versus 33 +/- 57 (no oleate) ng of LDL/mg of cell protein was degraded after incubation (2 h, 37 degrees C) with 50 micrograms/mL 125I-LDL. We speculate that this pathway could contribute to the clearance of both chylomicron remnants and LDL.

Rapid labeling of lipoproteins in plasma with radioactive cholesterol. Application for measurement of plasma cholesterol esterification.

In order to efficiently and rapidly label lipoproteins in plasma with [3H]cholesterol, micelles consisting of lysophosphatidylcholine (lysoPC) and [3H]cholesterol (molar ratio, 50:1) were prepared. When trace amounts of these micelles were injected into plasma, [3H]cholesterol rapidly equilibrated among the plasma lipoproteins, as compared to [3H]cholesterol from an albumin-stabilized emulsion. The distributions of both [3H]cholesterol and unlabeled free cholesterol in plasma lipoproteins were similar in labeled plasma samples. This method of labeling can be used for the measurement of cholesterol esterification, or lecithin:cholesterol acyltransferase activity, in small amounts (20-40 microliters) of plasma samples.

The lipolysis stimulated receptor: a gene at last.

The lipolysis stimulated receptor is a lipoprotein receptor that was initially described in 1992. In the presence of free fatty acids, the lipolysis stimulated receptor recognizes either apolipoprotein B or apolipoprotein E, and as a consequence, leads to the internalization and degradation of the lipoprotein particles. Its affinity is highest for those lipoproteins most susceptible to lipolysis, triglyceride-rich lipoproteins. Since the initial biochemical identification and description of the lipolysis stimulated receptor, several reports have been published by our group that provide circumstantial evidence for its role in vivo for the clearance of triglyceride-rich lipid particles. In this review, we bring the readers up-to-date on the evidence for the role of the lipolysis stimulated receptor in lipoprotein metabolism, as well as the recent developments in its molecular characterization.

Purification of the apolipoprotein B-67-containing low density lipoprotein particle and its affinity for the low density lipoprotein receptor.

Naturally occurring mutant forms of apolipoprotein B (apoB)-100 may be able to provide valuable information on the structure-function relationships of apoB with the low density lipoprotein (LDL) receptor. ApoB-67, recently identified in a kindred displaying apoB levels 25% of normal (Welty et al. J. Clin. Invest. 1991. 87: 1748-1754), is predicted to contain 3040 amino acids and therefore, contains part of the epitope for antibody 4G3, which blocks binding of LDL to the LDL-receptor. To determine whether the amino terminal 67% of apoB-100 is important for binding to the LDL receptor, the apoB-67-containing lipoprotein particle was purified from plasma by gradient ultracentrifugation. The fractions containing apoB-67 were in the density range 1.049-1.070 g/ml. These fractions were pooled and adsorbed onto an affinity chromatography column containing the monoclonal antibody, MB-47. The epitope for MB-47 is two nonlinear domains between amino acids 3429 to 3453 and 3507 to 3523; therefore, apoB-100 will bind to the MB-47 column but apoB-67 will not. The resulting apoB-67-containing particles were completely devoid of apoB-100. In competitive binding studies, the apoB-67 lipoprotein particle did not compete with 125I-labeled apoB-100-containing LDL particles for binding, uptake, or degradation by normal human fibroblast monolayers. We conclude that the amino terminal 67% of apoB-100 in the naturally occurring lipoprotein particle does not appear to contain a functionally relevant epitope of the LDL-receptor binding domain.

Nature of the enhancement of lecithin-cholesterol acyltransferase reaction by various apolipoproteins.

The effects of human apolipoproteins on the lecithin-cholesterol acyltransferase reaction were studied by using purified human lecithin-cholesterol acyltransferase and phosphatidylcholine-cholesterol vesicles. When the assay mixtures contained an optimal amount or excess of apo-A-I, the addition of apo-A-II, apo-C-II, apo-C-III1, or apo-C-III2 inhibited the enzymatic reaction. However, at suboptimal apo-A-I concentrations, the addition of low concentrations of these apolipoproteins exhibited activating effects. The relative activating effects were greater at lower apo-A-I levels. Under no circumstance did the combined activating effect of apo-A-I and other apolipoproteins exceed the maximum activating effect observed with the optimal level of apo-A-I alone. Since apo-A-II, apo-C-II, and apo-C-III did not show significant activating effects in the absence of apo-A-I, these apolipoproteins apparently did not act as true activator proteins for the enzymatic reaction. The activation of the enzymatic reaction by apo-A-I alone was shown to be due in part to the enhancement of the enzyme transfer between the substrate particles. The replacement of the transfer-enhancing effect of apo-A-I by apo-A-II, apo-C-II, or apo-C-III appears to be responsible for their apparent activating effects in the presence of suboptimal levels of apo-A-I. These apolipoproteins seemed to coexist with both the enzyme and apo-A-I on the substrate particles under the conditions when they showed the activating effect. However, at the concentrations inhibitory to the enzymatic reaction, these apolipoproteins displaced both the enzyme and apo-A-I from the phosphatidylcholine-cholesterol vesicles.

Unesterified fatty acids inhibit the binding of low density lipoproteins to the human fibroblast low density lipoprotein receptor.

Micromolar concentrations of oleate were found to inhibit reversibly the binding of low density lipoprotein (LDL) to the human fibroblast LDL receptor. The decrease in LDL binding caused a parallel reduction of both 125I-LDL uptake and degradation at 37 degrees C. At 4 degrees C, oleate was also found to displace 125I-LDL already bound to the LDL receptor. The effect of oleate was rapid, reaching 70-80% of maximum displacement with 5-10 min of incubation, and was closely correlated to oleate-albumin molar ratios. Partition analysis of unesterified fatty acids between cells and LDL showed that the inhibitory effect of oleate resulted mainly from an interaction of unesterified fatty acids with the cell surface rather than with the LDL particles. Using different unesterified fatty acids and fatty acid analogs, we found that the inhibitory effect was modulated by both the length and the conformation of the monomeric carbon chain and was directly dependent on the presence of a negative charge on the carboxylic group. At 4 degrees C, the inhibitory effect of oleate never exceeded half of maximum binding capacity. This limitation was associated with the ability of oleate to interact only with part of the population of LDL receptors which spontaneously recycles in the absence of ligand, as demonstrated by the fact that oleate did not induce any reduction of LDL binding after cell treatment with monensin in the absence of LDL. Our results indicate that unesterified fatty acids could participate in the control of LDL catabolism in vivo by direct modulation of the ability of LDL receptor to bind LDL.

Mechanism of activation and functional significance of the lipolysis-stimulated receptor. Evidence for a role as chylomicron remnant receptor.

In cultured human and rat cells, the lipolysis-stimulated receptor (LSR), when activated by free fatty acids (FFA), mediates the binding of apoprotein B- and apoprotein E-containing lipoproteins and their subsequent internalization and degradation. To better understand the physiological role of LSR, we developed a biochemical assay that optimizes both the activation and binding steps and, thus, allows the estimation of the number of LSR binding sites expressed in the livers of living animals. With this technique, a strong inverse correlation was found in rats between the apparent number of LSR binding sites in liver and the postprandial plasma triglyceride concentration (r = -0.828, p < 0.001, n = 12). No correlation existed between the number of LSR and plasma triglycerides measured in the same animals after 24 h of fasting. The same membrane binding assay was used to elucidate the mechanism by which FFA induce lipoprotein binding to LSR. The LSR activation step was mediated by direct interaction of FFA with LSR candidate proteins of apparent molecular masses of 115 and 90 kDa and occurred independently of the membrane lipid environment. The FFA-induced conformational shift that revealed the lipoprotein binding site remained fully reversible upon removal of the FFA. However, occupancy of the site by the apoprotein ligand stabilized the active form of LSR. Comparison of the effect of different FFA alone or in combination indicated that the same binding site is revealed by different FFA and that the length and saturation of the FFA monomeric carbon chain are critical in determining the potency of the FFA activating effect. We propose that the LSR pathway represents a limiting step for the cellular uptake of intestinally derived triglyceride-rich lipoproteins and speculate that FFA liberated by lipolysis initiate this process by altering the conformation of LSR to reveal the lipoprotein binding site.

Lipolysis-stimulated receptor: a newcomer on the lipoprotein research scene.

It has been widely accepted that the remnants of the intestinally-derived lipoprotein chylomicrons, i.e., chylomicron remnants (CMR), are cleared from the circulation by a receptor genetically distinct from the well-known LDL-receptor. This second receptor was initially considered as a receptor specific for apo E, in contrast to the LDL-receptor, which binds both apo B and apoE. This article critically examines the current dogma of the putative CMR receptor, as well as both supporting and conflicting evidence for the recently-proposed identity of this receptor with the LDL-receptor related protein (LRP). Next, we introduce the lipolysis-stimulated receptor, LSR, which bears all the biochemical characteristics of the CMR receptor. In addition, the apparent number of LSR expressed in the liver is inversely correlated with nonfasting levels of plasma triglycerides. A change in LSR expression and parallel inverse change in plasma triglycerides is observed in rats treated with hyperlipidemic (retinoic acid) or hypolipidemic (fish oil in MaxEPA) agents, indicating that LSR represents a definite target for pharmacological management of hyperlipidemia. In support of this notion is the observation that MaxEPA, which causes an increase in LSR expression, also reduces both plasma triglyceride and cholesterol levels in the thus far intractable homozygous Watanabe heritable hyperlipidemic rabbit.

Inhibitory effect on the lipolysis-stimulated receptor of the 39-kDa receptor-associated protein.

Adenovirus vector-mediated transfer of the receptor-associated protein (RAP) gene into low density lipoprotein (LDL) receptor-deficient mice was shown to achieve plasma concentrations ranging between 20 and 200 micrograms/ml and to result in the accumulation of remnant lipoproteins (Willnow, T. E., Sheng, Z., Ishibashi, S., and Herz, J. (1994) Science 264, 1471-1474). Both this finding and the observation that in addition to various other members of the LDL receptor gene family, RAP binds to a yet unidentified protein of apparent molecular mass of 105 kDa prompted us to examine the effect of high concentrations of RAP on the lipolysis-stimulated receptor (LSR). LSR is a receptor distinct from the LDL receptor and the LDL receptor-related protein and is capable of binding apoB and apoE when activated by free fatty acids. Data reported here show that in fibroblasts isolated from a subject homozygous for familial hypercholesterolemia, RAP fusion protein inhibited LSR-mediated binding of 125I-LDL and the subsequent internalization and degradation of the particles. Studies on the interaction of RAP with LSR in isolated rat liver membranes revealed that at concentrations > or = 10 micrograms/ml, RAP inhibited in a dose-dependent manner the binding of LDL to LSR; half-maximum inhibition was obtained with 20 micrograms/ml RAP. Ligand blotting studies revealed that RAP bound directly to two rat liver membrane proteins of apparent molecular masses identical to those that bind 125I-LDL after preincubation with oleate. However, unlike LDL, binding of 125I-RAP to LSR did not require preincubation with oleate. Preincubation of nitrocellulose membranes with an excess of unlabeled RAP fusion protein decreased oleate-induced binding of 125I-LDL to LSR candidate proteins, whereas preincubation with excess unlabeled LDL was unable to prevent the subsequent binding of 125I-RAP to the LSR proteins. Both the latter data and analysis of the mechanism of inhibition were consistent with the RAP inhibitory effect on LSR being achieved by interference with a site distinct from the oleate-induced LDL binding site. In conclusion, this study shows that at concentrations reported to delay chylomicron remnant removal in LDL receptor-deficient mice, RAP exerted a significant inhibitory effect on LSR.

Inhibitory effects of specific apolipoprotein C-III isoforms on the binding of triglyceride-rich lipoproteins to the lipolysis-stimulated receptor.

ApoC-III overexpression in mice results in severe hypertriglyceridemia due primarily to a delay in the clearance of triglyceride-rich lipoproteins. We have, in primary cultures of rat hepatocytes, characterized a lipolysis-stimulated receptor (LSR). The apparent number of LSR that are available on rat liver plasma membranes is negatively correlated with plasma triglyceride concentrations measured in the fed state. We therefore proposed that the primary physiological role of the LSR is to contribute to the cellular uptake of triglyceride-rich lipoproteins. We have now tested the effect of apoC-III on the binding of triglyceride-rich lipoproteins to LSR. Supplementation of 125I-very low density lipoprotein (VLDL) with apoC-III inhibited the LSR-mediated binding, internalization, and degradation of 125I-VLDL in primary cultures of rat hepatocytes. Studies using isolated rat liver plasma membranes showed that enrichment of human VLDL and chylomicrons with synthetic or purified human apoC-III decreased their binding to the LSR by about 40%. Supplementation of triglyceride-rich lipoproteins under the same conditions with human apoC-II had no such inhibitory effect, despite the fact that this apoprotein bound as efficiently as apoC-III to these particles. Preincubation of LDL with apoC-III did not modify its binding to LSR. Partitioning studies using 125I-apoC-III showed that this lack of effect was due to apoC-III's inability to efficiently associate with LDL. Purified human apoC-III1 was as efficient as the synthetic nonsialylated form of apoC-III in inhibiting binding of VLDL to LSR. However, despite a 2-fold greater binding of apoC-III2 to VLDL, this isoform was a less efficient inhibitor of the binding of VLDL to LSR than apoC-III1 or nonsialylated apoC-III. Desialylation of apoC-III2 by treatment with neuraminidase increased the inhibition of VLDL binding to LSR to a level similar to that observed with apoC-III1 and nonsialylated apoC-III. We propose that apoC-III regulates in part the rate of removal of triglyceride-rich particles by inhibiting their binding to the LSR, and that the level of inhibition is determined by the degree of apoC-III sialylation.

Proteolytic cleavage product of 30-kDa adipocyte complement-related protein increases fatty acid oxidation in muscle and causes weight loss in mice.

Adipocyte complement-related protein (30 kDa) (Acrp30), a secreted protein of unknown function, is exclusively expressed in differentiated adipocytes; its mRNA is decreased in obese humans and mice. Here we describe novel pharmacological properties of the protease-generated globular head domain of Acrp30 (gAcrp30). Acute treatment of mice with gAcrp30 significantly decreased the elevated levels of plasma free fatty acids caused either by administration of a high fat test meal or by i.v. injection of Intralipid. This effect of gAcrp30 was caused, at least in part, by an acute increase in fatty acid oxidation by muscle. As a result, daily administration of a very low dose of gAcrp30 to mice consuming a high-fat/sucrose diet caused profound and sustainable weight reduction without affecting food intake. Thus, gAcrp30 is a novel pharmacological compound that controls energy homeostasis and exerts its effect primarily at the peripheral level.

Identification of a lipolysis-stimulated receptor that is distinct from the LDL receptor and the LDL receptor-related protein.

This paper provides further characterization of a receptor that, in cells lacking the LDL receptor (FH fibroblasts), mediates lipoprotein binding, uptake, and degradation when incubated with oleate at concentrations not exceeding albumin binding capacity. This oleate-activated receptor is genetically distinct from the LDL receptor and is hereafter referred to as the lipolysis-stimulated receptor (LSR). Its apparent affinity was higher for triglyceride-rich lipoproteins (chylomicrons, VLDL) and for lipid emulsions supplemented with recombinant apoE, than for LDL which contains solely apoB. In contrast, VLDL isolated from a Type III hyperlipidemic patient (apoE2/2 phenotype) failed to bind to the LSR. Five lines of evidence indicated that the LSR is distinct from the LDL receptor-related protein (LRP): (1) the LRP ligand, alpha 2-macroglobulin-methylamine (alpha 2-MG*), did not bind to the oleate-induced LDL binding site; (2) oleate had no effect on the binding of alpha 2-MG* to LRP; (3) the LRP-associated protein, RAP, which inhibits LRP, had no effect on the LSR; (4) binding of lipoproteins to LSR was independent of Ca2+; and (5) LSR activity resolved as two proteins smaller than LRP (apparent molecular masses as determined by ligand blots: 115 and 85 kDa). That LSR provides a new candidate receptor contributing to the clearance of chylomicron remnants (CMR) is supported by the observation that LSR was inhibited by lactoferrin, a milk protein that delays CMR clearance when injected in vivo. Furthermore, in primary cultures of rat hepatocytes, oleate stimulated binding, uptake, and degradation of LDL with kinetic characteristics similar to that of LSR expressed in FH fibroblasts.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

[Liver mechanisms for the elimination of lipoproteins of intestinal origin]. / Mécanismes hépatiques d'élimination des lipoprotéines d'origine intestinale.

This article critically examines the concept of the putative chylomicron remnant receptor (CMR). The molecular nature of this second lipoprotein receptor remains disputed. Indeed, two proteins, the low density lipoprotein receptor-related protein (LRP) and the lipolysis stimulated receptor (LSR) have been proposed as candidates for this function. The LRP bears significant structural homology with the LDL receptor and mediates the internalisation of beta-VLDL enriched with apo E. In addition, LRP binds several ligands not related to the lipoprotein system. Thus, LRP's contribution to the clearance of CMR has been questioned. The precise biochemical structure of LSR remains unclear. However, a series of observations support the hypothesis that LSR is the CMR receptor. LSR, which is activated by free fatty acis (FFA), the products of lipolysis, is present in primary cultures of rat hepatocytes. It displays the highest affinity for triglyceride-rich lipoproteins and is inhibited by lactoferrin. The existence of a strong inverse correlation in rats between the apparent number of hepatic LSR and the plasma triglyceride concentration measured in the post-prandial state, indicate that LSR represents a rate-limiting step for the removal of triglyceride-rich lipoproteins. Moreover, the ability of MAXEPA to enhance the expression of LSR in parallel with its well documented hypotriglyceridemic effect indicates that, contrary to popular belief, the putative CMR receptor represents a target for pharmacological management of hyperlipidemia.

Molecular cloning of a lipolysis-stimulated remnant receptor expressed in the liver.

The lipolysis-stimulated receptor (LSR) is a lipoprotein receptor primarily expressed in the liver and activated by free fatty acids. Antibodies inhibiting LSR functions showed that the receptor is a heterotrimer or tetramer consisting of 68-kDa (alpha) and 56-kDa (beta) subunits associated through disulfide bridges. Screening of expression libraries with these antibodies led to identification of mRNAs derived by alternate splicing from a single gene and coding for proteins with molecular masses matching that of LSR alpha and beta. Antibodies directed against a synthetic peptide of LSR alpha and beta putative ligand binding domains inhibited LSR activity. Western blotting identified two liver proteins with the same apparent molecular mass as that of LSR alpha and beta. Transient transfections of LSR alpha alone in Chinese hamster ovary cells increased oleate-induced binding and uptake of lipoproteins, while cotransfection of both LSR alpha and beta increased oleate-induced proteolytic degradation of the particles. The ligand specificity of LSR expressed in cotransfected Chinese hamster ovary cells closely matched that previously described using fibroblasts from subjects lacking the low density lipoprotein receptor. LSR affinity is highest for the triglyceride-rich lipoproteins, chylomicrons, and very low density lipoprotein. We speculate that LSR is a rate-limiting step for the clearance of dietary triglycerides and plays a role in determining their partitioning between the liver and peripheral tissues.