Transgenerational effects of poor elemental food quality on Daphnia magna.

Environmental effects on parents can strongly affect the phenotype of their offspring, which alters the heritability of traits and the offspring's responses to the environment. We examined whether P limitation of the aquatic invertebrate, Daphnia magna, alters the responses of its offspring to inadequate P nutrition. Mother Daphnia consuming P-poor algal food produced smaller neonates having lower body P content compared to control (P-rich) mothers. These offspring from P-stressed mothers, when fed P-rich food, grew faster and reproduced on the same schedule as those from P-sufficient mothers. In contrast, offspring from P-stressed mothers, when fed P-poor food, grew more slowly and had delayed reproduction compared to their sisters born to control mothers. There was also weak evidence that daughters from P-stressed mothers are more susceptible to infection by the virulent bacterium, Pasteuria ramosa. Our results show that P stress is not only transferred across generations, but also that its effect on the offspring generation varies depending upon the quality of their own environment. Maternal P nutrition can thus determine the nature of offspring responses to food P content and potentially obfuscates relationships between the performance of offspring and their own nutrition. Given that food quality can be highly variable within and among natural environments, our results demonstrate that maternal effects should be included as an additional dimension into studies of how elemental nutrition affects the physiology, ecology, and evolution of animal consumers.

Expression of extracellular matrix components is disrupted in the immature and adult estrogen receptor ß-null mouse ovary.

Within the ovary, Estrogen Receptor ß (ERß) is localized to the granulosa cells of growing follicles. 17ß-estradiol (E2) acting via ERß augments the actions of follicle stimulating hormone in granulosa cells, leading to granulosa cell differentiation and formation of a preovulatory follicle. Adult ERß-null females are subfertile and possess ovaries with reduced numbers of growing follicles and corpora lutea. Because the majority of E2 production by granulosa cells occurs once puberty is reached, a role for ERß in the ovary prior to puberty has not been well examined. We now provide evidence that lack of ERß disrupts gene expression as early as post-natal day (PND) 13, and in particular, we identify a number of genes of the extracellular matrix (ECM) that are significantly higher in ERß-null follicles than in wildtype (WT) follicles. Considerable changes occur to the ECM occur during normal folliculogenesis to allow for the dramatic growth, cellular differentiation, and reorganization of the follicle from the primary to preovulatory stage. Using quantitative PCR and immunofluorescence, we now show that several ECM genes are aberrantly overexpressed in ERß-null follicles. We find that Collagen11a1, a protein highly expressed in cartilage, is significantly higher in ERß-null follicles than WT follicles as early as PND 13, and this heightened expression continues through PND 23-29 into adulthood. Similarly, Nidogen 2, a highly conserved basement membrane glycoprotein, is elevated in ERß-null follicles at PND 13 into adulthood, and is elevated specifically in the ERß-null focimatrix, a basal lamina-like matrix located between granulosa cells. Focimatrix laminin and Collagen IV expression were also higher in ERß-null ovaries than in WT ovaries at various ages. Our findings suggest two novel observations: a) that ERß regulates granulosa cell gene expression ovary prior to puberty, and b) that ERß regulates expression of ECM components in the mouse ovary.