Using (1,3)-ß-D-glucan concentrations in serum to monitor the response of azole therapy in patients with eumycetoma caused by Madurella mycetomatis.

INTRODUCTION: (1,3)-ß-D-glucan is a panfungal biomarker secreted by many fungi, including Madurella mycetomatis, the main causative agent of eumycetoma. Previously we demonstrated that (1,3)-ß-D-glucan was present in serum of patients with eumycetoma. However, the use of (1,3)-ß-D-glucan to monitor treatment responses in patients with eumycetoma has not been evaluated. MATERIALS AND METHODS: In this study, we measured (1,3)-ß-D-glucan concentrations in serum with the WAKO (1,3)-ß-D-glucan assay in 104 patients with eumycetoma treated with either 400 mg itraconazole daily, or 200 mg or 300 mg fosravuconazole weekly. Serial serum (1,3)-ß-D-glucan concentrations were measured at seven different timepoints. Any correlation between initial and final (1,3)-ß-D-glucan concentrations and clinical outcome was evaluated. RESULTS: The concentration of (1,3)-ß-D-glucan was obtained in a total of 654 serum samples. Before treatment, the average (1,3)-ß-D-glucan concentration was 22.86 pg/mL. During the first 6 months of treatment, this concentration remained stable. (1,3)-ß-D-glucan concentrations significantly dropped after surgery to 8.56 pg/mL. After treatment was stopped, there was clinical evidence of recurrence in 18 patients. Seven of these 18 patients had a (1,3)-ß-D-glucan concentration above the 5.5 pg/mL cut-off value for positivity, while in the remaining 11 patients, (1,3)-ß-D-glucan concentrations were below the cut-off value. This resulted in a sensitivity of 38.9% and specificity of 75.0%. A correlation between lesion size and (1,3)-ß-D-glucan concentration was noted. CONCLUSION: Although in general (1,3)-ß-D-glucan concentrations can be measured in the serum of patients with eumycetoma during treatment, a sharp decrease in ß-glucan concentration was only noted after surgery and not during or after antimicrobial treatment. (1,3)-ß-D-glucan concentrations were not predictive for recurrence and seem to have no value in determining treatment response to azoles in patients with eumycetoma.

Comparing the performance of the common used eumycetoma diagnostic tests.

OBJECTIVES: Mycetoma is a neglected tropical implantation disease caused by 70 different infectious agents. Identifying the causative organism to the species level is essential for appropriate patient management. Ultrasound, histopathology, culture and two species-specific PCRs are most the commonly used methods for species identification in endemic regions. The aim of this study was to compare the diagnostic performance of these commonly used assays using sequencing of barcoding genes as the gold standard. METHODS: This descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted at the Mycetoma Research Centre, University of Khartoum, Sudan. It included 222 patients suspected of fungal mycetoma caused by Madurella mycetomatis. RESULTS: 154 (69.3%) were correctly identified by ultrasound, histology, culture and both species-specific PCRs. In 60 patients, at least one of the diagnostic tests failed to identify M. mycetomatis. Five patients had no evidence of eumycetoma, and for three, only the ultrasound was indicative of mycetoma. The two species-specific PCRs were the most sensitive and specific methods, followed by culture and histology. Ultrasound was the least specific as it only allowed differentiation between actinomycetoma and eumycetoma. The time to result was 9.38 minutes for ultrasound, 3.76 hours for PCR, 8.5 days for histopathology and 21 days for grain culturing. CONCLUSION: Currently, PCR directly on DNA isolated from grains is the most rapid and reliable diagnostic tool to identify M. mycetomatis eumycetoma.

Epidemiological cut-off values for itraconazole and ravuconazole for Madurella mycetomatis, the most common causative agent of mycetoma.

BACKGROUND: Eumycetoma is a neglected tropical disease. It is a chronic inflammatory subcutaneous infection characterised by painless swellings which produce grains. It is currently treated with a combination of itraconazole and surgery. In an ongoing clinical study, the efficacy of fosravuconazole, the prodrug of ravuconazole, is being investigated. For both itraconazole and ravuconazole, no clinical breakpoints or epidemiological cut-off values (ECV) to guide treatment are currently available. OBJECTIVE: To determine tentative ECVs for itraconazole and ravuconazole in Madurella mycetomatis, the main causative agent of eumycetoma. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Minimal inhibitory concentrations (MICs) for itraconazole and ravuconazole were determined in 131 genetically diverse clinical M. mycetomatis isolates with the modified CLSI M38 broth microdilution method. The MIC distributions were established and used to determine ECVs with the ECOFFinder software. CYP51A sequences were sequenced to determine whether mutations occurred in this azole target gene, and comparisons were made between the different CYP51A variants and the MIC distributions. RESULTS: The MICs ranged from 0.008 to 1 mg/L for itraconazole and from 0.002 to 0.125 mg/L for ravuconazole. The M. mycetomatis ECV for itraconazole was 1 mg/L and for ravuconazole 0.064 mg/L. In the wild-type population, two CYP51A variants were found for M. mycetomatis, which differed in one amino acid at position 499 (S499G). The MIC distributions for itraconazole and ravuconazole were similar between the two variants. No mutations linked to decreased susceptibility were found. CONCLUSION: The proposed M. mycetomatis ECV for itraconazole is 1 mg/L and for ravuconazole 0.064 mg/L.

Recent Development of Visceral Leishmaniasis Treatments: Successes, Pitfalls, and Perspectives.

Research in visceral leishmaniasis in the last decade has been focused on how better to use the existing medicines as monotherapy or in combination. Systematic research by geographical regions has shown that a universal treatment is far from today's reality. Substantial progress has been made in the elimination of kala-azar in South Asia, with a clear strategy on first- and second-line therapy options of single-dose liposomal amphotericin B and a combination of paromomycin and miltefosine, respectively, among other interventions. In Eastern Africa, sodium stibogluconate (SSG) and paromomycin in combination offer an advantage compared to the previous SSG monotherapy, although not exempted of limitations, as this therapy requires 17 days of painful double injections and bears the risk of SSG-related cardiotoxicity. In this region, attempts to improve the combination therapy have been unsuccessful. However, pharmacokinetic studies have led to a better understanding of underlying mechanisms, like the underexposure of children to miltefosine treatment, and an improved regimen using an allometric dosage. Given this global scenario of progress and pitfalls, we here review what steps need to be taken with existing medicines and highlight the urgent need for oral drugs. Furthermore, it should be noted that six candidates belonging to five new chemical classes are reaching phase I, ensuring an optimistic near future.

Safety and Effectiveness of Short-Course AmBisome in the Treatment of Post-Kala-Azar Dermal Leishmaniasis: A Prospective Cohort Study in Bangladesh.

Background: A safe and effective short-course treatment regimen for post-kala-azar dermal leishmaniasis (PKDL) is considered essential for achieving and sustaining elimination of visceral leishmaniasis (VL) in the Indian subcontinent [1, 2]. Here, single-dose liposomal amphotericin B (AmBisome) has been adopted as a first-line regimen for VL; however the effectiveness and safety of AmBisome for PKDL has not been formally evaluated. Methods: The safety and effectiveness of AmBisome 15 mg/kg, given over 15 days in 5 biweekly infusions of 3 mg/kg on an outpatient basis, was evaluated between April and November 2014 in patients with clinically diagnosed PKDL, aged ≥12 years and residing in a highly VL-endemic area in Bangladesh. This was a prospective cohort observational study, with the objective to assess final cure 12 months after treatment. Clinical response was monitored at 1, 3, 6, and 12 months, and safety during treatment and up to 1 month after treatment. Results: Of the 280 patients meeting the inclusion criteria, 273 were assessed at 12 months. A complete or major improvement of lesions was seen in 245 patients (89.7%); 213 (78.0%) were considered completely cured. Lesions did not improve in 28 (10.3%) and new lesions appeared in 13 (4.8%). All patients completed treatment without severe or serious adverse events. Conclusions: A short-course 15-mg/kg AmBisome regimen proved safe and effective in the treatment of clinically diagnosed PKDL in Bangladesh, and should be considered a treatment option for routine programmatic use in the VL elimination effort in the Indian subcontinent.

Filicide and suicide in a family by paraphenylene diamine poisoning: a mother who committed suicide and poisoned her four children of which one died.

Paraphenylene diamine (PPD) hair dye poisoning is a common health problem in the Middle East and Indian subcontinent. It is the most common cause of suicide intent especially among females. We hereby present a 27-year-old female who presented with a clinical feature of PPD poisoning due to a suicidal attempt, and she died soon after arrival. She had survived a previous suicide attempt with PPD 4 years before. This time she also intentionally tried to kill her four children using PPD. One child died, one recovered after dialysis for acute kidney injury and the other two survived without any further intervention. This case illustrates that PPD poisoning may be used in filicide and suicide intent and that all patients who committed suicide should be reviewed and assessed by clinical psychiatrist.

A trial of a 7-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine in HIV-infected adults.

BACKGROUND: Streptococcus pneumoniae is a leading and serious coinfection in adults with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection, particularly in Africa. Prevention of this disease by vaccination with the current 23-valent polysaccharide vaccine is suboptimal. Protein conjugate vaccines offer a further option for protection, but data on their clinical efficacy in adults are needed. METHODS: In this double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled clinical efficacy trial, we studied the efficacy of a 7-valent conjugate pneumococcal vaccine in predominantly HIV-infected Malawian adolescents and adults who had recovered from documented invasive pneumococcal disease. Two doses of vaccine were given 4 weeks apart. The primary end point was a further episode of pneumococcal infection caused by vaccine serotypes or serotype 6A. RESULTS: From February 2003 through October 2007, we followed 496 patients (of whom 44% were male and 88% were HIV-seropositive) for 798 person-years of observation. There were 67 episodes of pneumococcal disease in 52 patients, all in the HIV-infected subgroup. In 24 patients, there were 19 episodes that were caused by vaccine serotypes and 5 episodes that were caused by the 6A serotype. Of these episodes, 5 occurred in the vaccine group and 19 in the placebo group, for a vaccine efficacy of 74% (95% confidence interval [CI], 30 to 90). There were 73 deaths from any cause in the vaccine group and 63 in the placebo group (hazard ratio in the vaccine group, 1.18; 95% CI, 0.84 to 1.66). The number of serious adverse events within 14 days after vaccination was significantly lower in the vaccine group than in the placebo group (3 vs. 17, P=0.002), and the number of minor adverse events was significantly higher in the vaccine group (41 vs. 13, P=0.003). CONCLUSIONS: The 7-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine protected HIV-infected adults from recurrent pneumococcal infection caused by vaccine serotypes or serotype 6A. (Current Controlled Trials number, ISRCTN54494731.)

Safety and efficacy of paromomycin/miltefosine/liposomal amphotericin B combinations for the treatment of post-kala-azar dermal leishmaniasis in Sudan: A phase II, open label, randomized, parallel arm study.

BACKGROUND: Treatment for post-kala-azar dermal leishmaniasis (PKDL) in Sudan is currently recommended only for patients with persistent or severe disease, mainly because of the limitations of current therapies, namely toxicity and long hospitalization. We assessed the safety and efficacy of miltefosine combined with paromomycin and liposomal amphotericin B (LAmB) for the treatment of PKDL in Sudan. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: An open-label, phase II, randomized, parallel-arm, non-comparative trial was conducted in patients with persistent (stable or progressive disease for ≥ 6 months) or grade 3 PKDL, aged 6 to ≤ 60 years in Sudan. The median age was 9.0 years (IQR 7.0-10.0y) and 87% of patients were ≤12 years old. Patients were randomly assigned to either daily intra-muscular paromomycin (20mg/kg, 14 days) plus oral miltefosine (allometric dose, 42 days)-PM/MF-or LAmB (total dose of 20mg/kg, administered in four injections in week one) and oral miltefosine (allometric dose, 28 days)-LAmB/MF. The primary endpoint was a definitive cure at 12 months after treatment onset, defined as clinical cure (100% lesion resolution) and no additional PKDL treatment between end of therapy and 12-month follow-up assessment. 104/110 patients completed the trial. Definitive cure at 12 months was achieved in 54/55 (98.2%, 95% CI 90.3-100) and 44/55 (80.0%, 95% CI 70.2-91.9) of patients in the PM/MF and AmB/MF arms, respectively, in the mITT set (all randomized patients receiving at least one dose of treatment; in case of error of treatment allocation, the actual treatment received was used in the analysis). No SAEs or deaths were reported, and most AEs were mild or moderate. At least one adverse drug reaction (ADR) was reported in 13/55 (23.6%) patients in PM/MF arm and 28/55 (50.9%) in LAmB/MF arm, the most frequent being miltefosine-related vomiting and nausea, and LAmB-related hypokalaemia; no ocular or auditory ADRs were reported. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: The PM/MF regimen requires shorter hospitalization than the currently recommended 60-90-day treatment, and is safe and highly efficacious, even for patients with moderate and severe PKDL. It can be administered at primary health care facilities, with LAmB/MF as a good alternative. For future VL elimination, we need new, safe oral therapies for all patients with PKDL. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT03399955, https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT03399955 ClinicalTrials.gov ClinicalTrials.gov.

Precision Medicine in Control of Visceral Leishmaniasis Caused by L. donovani.

Precision medicine and precision global health in visceral leishmaniasis (VL) have not yet been described and could take into account how all known determinants improve diagnostics and treatment for the individual patient. Precision public health would lead to the right intervention in each VL endemic population for control, based on relevant population-based data, vector exposures, reservoirs, socio-economic factors and other determinants. In anthroponotic VL caused by L. donovani, precision may currently be targeted to the regional level in nosogeographic entities that are defined by the interplay of the circulating parasite, the reservoir and the sand fly vector. From this 5 major priorities arise: diagnosis, treatment, PKDL, asymptomatic infection and transmission. These 5 priorities share the immune responses of infection with L. donovani as an important final common pathway, for which innovative new genomic and non-genomic tools in various disciplines have become available that provide new insights in clinical management and in control. From this, further precision may be defined for groups (e.g. children, women, pregnancy, HIV-VL co-infection), and eventually targeted to the individual level.

Invasive non-typhoid salmonellae establish systemic intracellular infection in HIV-infected adults: an emerging disease pathogenesis.

BACKGROUND: Salmonellae are facultative intracellular pathogens. Non-typhoid salmonellae (NTS) cause self-limiting mucosal disease in immunocompetent adults but invasive, recurrent disease among human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected adults in Africa. The importance of intracellular NTS infection in HIV is unknown. METHODS: We performed quantitative pour-plate culture of blood samples obtained during febrile events among 495 Malawian adults on 871 occasions, and NTS were isolated at 158 events. Ninety-eight percent were HIV infected, with a median CD4 count of 67 cells/microL. Lysis of pour plates and gentamicin exclusion testing were used to investigate the presence of intracellular NTS in blood and bone marrow. RESULTS: Total viable NTS counts in blood were low (1 colony-forming unit [CFU]/mL) but correlated independently with lower CD4 count and with IL-10 and IL-6 levels, especially at recurrence, suggesting failure to clear intracellular infection. Viable NTS load in blood and bone marrow were closely correlated at index events, but NTS were significantly concentrated in bone marrow, compared with blood samples, at recurrences (6 vs 1 CFU/mL), suggesting systemic tissue replication. Both lysis-pour-plating and gentamicin exclusion testing demonstrated intracellular infection with >1 CFU/cell in both blood and bone marrow specimens. Intracellular bacteria were demonstrated in bone marrow at both index and recurrent events, showing that this is an early and enduring feature of pathogenesis, but intracellular NTS were detected in blood only at index events, particularly in patients with a CD4 count <50 cells/microL. Intravascular NTS at recurrence may therefore reflect extracellular "overspill" from an intracellular sanctuary site, following failure of immunological control. CONCLUSIONS: Invasive NTS have established a new and emerging pathogenesis in the context of HIV infection in Africa.

Corticosteroids for bacterial meningitis in adults in sub-Saharan Africa.

BACKGROUND: In sub-Saharan Africa, bacterial meningitis is common and is associated with a high mortality. Adjuvant therapy with corticosteroids reduces mortality among adults in the developed world, but it has not been adequately tested in developing countries or in the context of advanced human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. METHODS: We conducted a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of dexamethasone (16 mg twice daily for 4 days) and an open-label trial of intramuscular versus intravenous ceftriaxone (2 g twice daily for 10 days) in adults with an admission diagnosis of bacterial meningitis in Blantyre, Malawi. The primary outcome was death at 40 days after randomization. RESULTS: A total of 465 patients, 90% of whom were HIV-positive, were randomly assigned to receive dexamethasone (233 patients) or placebo (232 patients) plus intramuscular ceftriaxone (230 patients) or intravenous ceftriaxone (235 patients). There was no significant difference in mortality at 40 days in the corticosteroid group (129 of 231 patients) as compared with the placebo group (120 of 228 patients) by intention-to-treat analysis (odds ratio, 1.14; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.79 to 1.64) or when the analysis was restricted to patients with proven pneumococcal meningitis (68 of 129 patients receiving corticosteroids vs. 72 of 143 patients receiving placebo) (odds ratio, 1.10; 95% CI, 0.68 to 1.77). There were no significant differences between groups in the outcomes of disability and death combined, hearing impairment, and adverse events. There was no difference in mortality with intravenous ceftriaxone (121 of 230 patients) as compared with intramuscular ceftriaxone (128 of 229 patients) (odds ratio, 0.88; 95% CI, 0.61 to 1.27). CONCLUSIONS: Adjuvant therapy with dexamethasone for bacterial meningitis in adults from an area with a high prevalence of HIV did not reduce mortality or morbidity. In this setting, intramuscular administration was not inferior to intravenous administration of ceftriaxone for bacterial meningitis. (Current Controlled Trials number, ISRCTN31371499 [controlled-trials.com].).

Diagnosis of cryptococcal and tuberculous meningitis in a resource-limited African setting.

OBJECTIVES: Cryptococcal meningitis (CM) and tuberculous meningitis (TBM) are common in HIV-infected adults in Africa and difficult to diagnose. Inaccurate diagnosis results in adverse outcomes. We describe patterns of meningitis in a Malawian hospital, focusing on features which differentiate CM and TBM with the aim to derive an algorithm using only clinical and basic laboratory data available in this resource-poor setting. METHODS: Consecutive patients admitted with meningitis were prospectively recruited, clinical features were recorded and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) was examined. RESULTS: A total of 573 patients were recruited, and 263 (46%) had CSF consistent with meningitis. One hundred and twelve (43%) had CM and 46 (18%) had TBM. CM was associated with high CSF opening pressure and low CSF leukocyte count. Fever, neck stiffness and reduced conscious level were associated with TBM. A diagnostic index was constructed demonstrating sensitivity 83%and specificity 79% for the differentiation of CM and TBM. An algorithm was derived with 92% sensitivity for the diagnosis of CM, but only 58% specificity. CONCLUSIONS: Although we demonstrate features associated with CM and TBM, a sufficiently sensitive and specific diagnostic algorithm could not be derived, suggesting that the diagnosis of CM and TBM in resource-limited settings still requires better access to laboratory tools.

The benefit of supplementary feeding for wasted Malawian adults initiating ART.

Food insecurity is considered to be an important contributor to HIV associated wasting in sub-Saharan Africa. Low body mass index (BMI) is a strong risk factor for early mortality during antiretroviral therapy (ART). Nutritional supplementation has become standard of care in wasted patients starting ART in many countries in the region, but there is no unequivocal evidence base for this intervention. Against this background, we performed a retrospective study to compare food supplementation versus no nutritional intervention in wasted adults starting ART in Blantyre, Malawi. All patients received free nevirapine, lamivudine, and stavudine. Participants in an effectiveness trial of two food supplements received either corn-soy blend (CSB) or ready-to-use food spread (RUFS) during the first 14 weeks of ART. Results were compared with a historical control group receiving no food supplement that was part of an observational cohort study of outcomes of the same ART regimen. Characteristics on initiation of ART were similar in the three groups, except the use of cotrimoxazole prophylaxis which was more frequent in the food-supplemented groups. Linear regression analysis showed that increase in BMI was greatest in the RUFS group and better in the CSB group than in those receiving no food supplementation at 14 weeks. These differences were no longer significant at 26 weeks. Lower BMI, CD4 count and hemoglobin, WHO clinical stage IV, male gender, and not receiving cotrimoxazole prophylaxis were independent risk factors for mortality at 14 and 26 weeks in the logistic regression analysis. Supplementary food use was not directly associated with improved survival.

Report of the Fifth Post-Kala-Azar Dermal Leishmaniasis Consortium Meeting, Colombo, Sri Lanka, 14-16 May 2018.

The 5th Post-Kala-Azar Dermal Leishmaniasis (PKDL) Consortium meeting brought together PKDL experts from all endemic areas to review and discuss existing and new data on PKDL. This report summarizes the presentations and discussions and provides the overall conclusions and recommendations.

Three-Dimensional Optical Scanning in Post-kala-azar Dermal Leishmaniasis (PKDL).

Post-kala-azar dermal leishmaniasis may occur after successful treatment of visceral leishmaniasis and is characterized by macules, papules, or nodules in the skin, with varying size. The response to antileishmanial therapy remains difficult to assess because there are presently no reliable biomarkers. To date, skin lesions are clinically assessed for decrease in size or change in color, which is invariably subjective. Novel 3-dimensional optical scanning devices offer safe and field-adapted methods to objectively assess skin lesions for changes over time in size and color that can be quantified with great accuracy.

Nontraumatic Myelopathy in Malawi: A Prospective Study in an Area with High HIV Prevalence.

Nontraumatic myelopathy causes severe morbidity and is not uncommon in Africa. Clinically, patients often present with paraplegia, and extrinsic cord compression and transverse myelitis are most common causes. Data on exact pathogenesis are scanty because of limitations in diagnostic methods. In Queen Elizabeth Central Hospital, Blantyre, Malawi, we recorded consecutive patients presenting with nontraumatic paraplegia for maximally 6 months between January and July 2010 and from March to December 2011. The diagnostic workup included imaging and examining blood, stool, urine, sputum, and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) samples for infection. After discharge, additional diagnostic tests, including screening for virus infections, borreliosis, syphilis, and schistosomiasis, were carried out in the Netherlands. The clinical diagnosis was, thus, revised in retrospect with a more accurate final differential diagnosis. Of 58 patients included, the mean age was 41 years (range, 12-83 years) and the median time between onset and presentation was 18 days (range, 0-121 days), and of 55 patients tested, 23 (42%) were HIV positive. Spinal tuberculosis (n = 24, 41%), tumors (n = 16, 28%), and transverse myelitis (n = 6, 10%) were most common; in six cases (10%), no diagnosis could be made. The additional tests yielded evidence for CSF infection with Schistosoma, Treponema pallidum, Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), HHV-6, HIV, as well as a novel cyclovirus. The diagnosis of the cause of paraplegia is complex and requires access to an magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan and other diagnostic (molecular) tools to demonstrate infection. The major challenge is to confirm the role of detected pathogens in the pathophysiology and to design an effective and affordable diagnostic approach.

Domestic smoke exposure is associated with alveolar macrophage particulate load.

OBJECTIVES: Indoor air pollution is associated with impaired respiratory health. The pre-dominant indoor air pollutant to which two billion of the world's population is exposed is biomass fuel smoke. We tested the hypothesis that reported smoke exposure in men and women is associated with increased alveolar macrophage uptake of biomass smoke particulates. METHODS: Healthy volunteers attending for research bronchoscopy in Malawi completed a questionnaire assessment of smoke exposure. Particulate matter visible in alveolar macrophages (AM) was quantified using digital image analysis. The geometric mean of the percentage area of the cytoplasm occupied by particulates in 50 cover-slip adherent AM was calculated and termed particulate load. RESULTS: In 57 subjects (40 men and 17 women) there was a significant difference between the particulate load in groups divided according to pre-dominant lighting form used at home (ANOVA P = 0.0009) and type of cooking fuel (P = 0.0078). CONCLUSIONS: Particulate load observed in macrophages is associated with the reported type of biomass fuel exposure. Macrophage function in relation to respiratory health should now be investigated in biomass smoke exposed subjects.

Biomarkers in Post-kala-azar Dermal Leishmaniasis.

Post-kala-azar dermal leishmaniasis (PKDL) follows visceral leishmaniasis (VL, kala-azar) in 10-60% of cases. It is characterized by an asymptomatic skin rash, usually starting in the face and consisting of macules, papules, or nodules. Diagnosis is difficult in the field and is often made clinically. There is an extensive differential diagnosis, and parasitological confirmation is preferred particularly when drug treatment is considered. The response to treatment is difficult to assess as this may be slow and lesions take long to heal, thus possibly exposing patients unnecessarily to prolonged drug treatment. Biomarkers are needed; these may be parasitological (from microscopy, PCR), serological (from blood, or from the lesion), immunological (from blood, tissue), pathological (from cytology in a smear, histology in a biopsy), repeated clinical assessment (grading, photography), or combinations. In this paper, we will review evidence for currently used biomarkers and discuss promising developments.

Post-Kala-Azar Dermal Leishmaniasis as a Reservoir for Visceral Leishmaniasis Transmission.

Post-kala-azar dermal leishmaniasis (PKDL) is a parasitic skin infection which can occur after visceral leishmaniasis (VL). Recent xenodiagnosis studies (Mondal et al., Clin. Infect. Dis., 2018) have uncovered the infectiousness of PKDL. When including this in a transmission model, PKDL cases appear as an important reservoir of infection, likely frustrating the VL elimination efforts on the Indian subcontinent.

Long term outcomes and prognostics of visceral leishmaniasis in HIV infected patients with use of pentamidine as secondary prophylaxis based on CD4 level: a prospective cohort study in Ethiopia.

BACKGROUND: The long-term treatment outcome of visceral leishmaniasis (VL) patients with HIV co-infection is complicated by a high rate of relapse, especially when the CD4 count is low. Although use of secondary prophylaxis is recommended, it is not routinely practiced and data on its effectiveness and safety are limited. METHODS: A prospective cohort study was conducted in Northwest Ethiopia from August 2014 to August 2017 (NCT02011958). HIV-VL patients were followed for up to 12 months. Patients with CD4 cell counts below 200/µL at the end of VL treatment received pentamidine prophylaxis starting one month after parasitological cure, while those with CD4 count ≥200 cells/µL were followed without secondary prophylaxis. Compliance, safety and relapse-free survival, using Kaplan-Meier analysis methods to account for variable time at risk, were summarised. Risk factors for relapse or death were analysed. RESULTS: Fifty-four HIV patients were followed. The probability of relapse-free survival at one year was 50% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 35-63%): 53% (30-71%) in 22 patients with CD4 ≥200 cells/µL without pentamidine prophylaxis and 46% (26-63%) in 29 with CD4 <200 cells/µL who started pentamidine. Three patients with CD4 <200 cells/µL did not start pentamidine. Amongst those with CD4 ≥200 cells/µL, VL relapse was an independent risk factor for subsequent relapse or death (adjusted rate ratio: 5.42, 95% CI: 1.1-25.8). Except for one case of renal failure which was considered possibly related to pentamidine, there were no drug-related safety concerns. CONCLUSION: The relapse-free survival rate for VL patients with HIV was low. Relapse-free survival of patients with CD4 count <200cells/µL given pentamidine secondary prophylaxis appeared to be comparable to patients with a CD4 count ≥200 cells/µL not given prophylaxis. Patients with relapsed VL are at higher risk for subsequent relapse and should be considered a priority for secondary prophylaxis, irrespective of their CD4 count.