Poxvirus Immune Evasion.

Poxviruses have evolved a wide array of mechanisms to evade the immune response, and we provide an overview of the different immunomodulatory strategies. Poxviruses prevent the recognition of viral DNA that triggers the immune responses and inhibit signaling pathways within the infected cell. A unique feature of poxviruses is the production of secreted proteins that mimic cytokines and cytokine receptors, acting as decoy receptors to neutralize the activity of cytokines and chemokines. The capacity of these proteins to evade cellular immune responses by inhibiting cytokine activation is complemented by poxviruses' strategies to block natural killer cells and cytotoxic T cells, often through interfering with antigen presentation pathways. Mechanisms that target complement activation are also encoded by poxviruses. Virus-encoded proteins that target immune molecules and pathways play a major role in immune modulation, and their contribution to viral pathogenesis, facilitating virus replication or preventing immunopathology, is discussed.

Innate Immunity in Protection and Pathogenesis During Coronavirus Infections and COVID-19.

The COVID-19 pandemic was caused by the recently emerged ß-coronavirus SARS-CoV-2. SARS-CoV-2 has had a catastrophic impact, resulting in nearly 7 million fatalities worldwide to date. The innate immune system is the first line of defense against infections, including the detection and response to SARS-CoV-2. Here, we discuss the innate immune mechanisms that sense coronaviruses, with a focus on SARS-CoV-2 infection and how these protective responses can become detrimental in severe cases of COVID-19, contributing to cytokine storm, inflammation, long-COVID, and other complications. We also highlight the complex cross talk among cytokines and the cellular components of the innate immune system, which can aid in viral clearance but also contribute to inflammatory cell death, cytokine storm, and organ damage in severe COVID-19 pathogenesis. Furthermore, we discuss how SARS-CoV-2 evades key protective innate immune mechanisms to enhance its virulence and pathogenicity, as well as how innate immunity can be therapeutically targeted as part of the vaccination and treatment strategy. Overall, we highlight how a comprehensive understanding of innate immune mechanisms has been crucial in the fight against SARS-CoV-2 infections and the development of novel host-directed immunotherapeutic strategies for various diseases.

IL-6 Revisited: From Rheumatoid Arthritis to CAR T Cell Therapy and COVID-19.

The diverse biological activity of interleukin-6 (IL-6) contributes to the maintenance of homeostasis. Emergent infection or tissue injury induces rapid production of IL-6 and activates host defense through augmentation of acute-phase proteins and immune responses. However, excessive IL-6 production and uncontrolled IL-6 receptor signaling are critical to pathogenesis. Over the years, therapeutic agents targeting IL-6 signaling, such as tocilizumab, a humanized anti-IL-6 receptor antibody, have shown remarkable efficacy for rheumatoid arthritis, Castleman disease, and juvenile idiopathic arthritis, and their efficacy in other diseases is continually being reported. Emerging evidence has demonstrated the benefit of tocilizumab for several types of acute inflammatory diseases, including cytokine storms induced by chimeric antigen receptor T cell therapy and coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Here, we refocus attention on the biology of IL-6 and summarize the distinct pathological roles of IL-6 signaling in several acute and chronic inflammatory diseases.

Immunosensation: Neuroimmune Cross Talk in the Skin.

Classically, skin was considered a mere structural barrier protecting organisms from a diversity of environmental insults. In recent decades, the cutaneous immune system has become recognized as a complex immunologic barrier involved in both antimicrobial immunity and homeostatic processes like wound healing. To sense a variety of chemical, mechanical, and thermal stimuli, the skin harbors one of the most sophisticated sensory networks in the body. However, recent studies suggest that the cutaneous nervous system is highly integrated with the immune system to encode specific sensations into evolutionarily conserved protective behaviors. In addition to directly sensing pathogens, neurons employ novel neuroimmune mechanisms to provide host immunity. Therefore, given that sensation underlies various physiologies through increasingly complex reflex arcs, a much more dynamic picture is emerging of the skin as a truly systemic organ with highly coordinated physical, immunologic, and neural functions in barrier immunology.

Fine-Tuning Cytokine Signals.

Cytokines are secreted or otherwise released polypeptide factors that exert autocrine and/or paracrine actions, with most cytokines acting in the immune and/or hematopoietic system. They are typically pleiotropic, controlling development, cell growth, survival, and/or differentiation. Correspondingly, cytokines are clinically important, and augmenting or attenuating cytokine signals can have deleterious or therapeutic effects. Besides physiological fine-tuning of cytokine signals, altering the nature or potency of the signal can be important in pathophysiological responses and can also provide novel therapeutic approaches. Here, we give an overview of cytokines, their signaling and actions, and the physiological mechanisms and pharmacologic strategies to fine-tune their actions. In particular, the differential utilization of STAT proteins by a single cytokine or by different cytokines and STAT dimerization versus tetramerization are physiological mechanisms of fine-tuning, whereas anticytokine and anticytokine receptor antibodies and cytokines with altered activities, including cytokine superagonists, partial agonists, and antagonists, represent new ways of fine-tuning cytokine signals.

Gut Microbiota Regulation of T Cells During Inflammation and Autoimmunity.

The intestinal microbiota plays a crucial role in influencing the development of host immunity, and in turn the immune system also acts to regulate the microbiota through intestinal barrier maintenance and immune exclusion. Normally, these interactions are homeostatic, tightly controlled, and organized by both innate and adaptive immune responses. However, a combination of environmental exposures and genetic defects can result in a break in tolerance and intestinal homeostasis. The outcomes of these interactions at the mucosal interface have broad, systemic effects on host immunity and the development of chronic inflammatory or autoimmune disease. The underlying mechanisms and pathways the microbiota can utilize to regulate these diseases are just starting to emerge. Here, we discuss the recent evidence in this area describing the impact of microbiota-immune interactions during inflammation and autoimmunity, with a focus on barrier function and CD4+ T cell regulation.

Signaling and Function of Interleukin-2 in T Lymphocytes.

The discovery of interleukin-2 (IL-2) changed the molecular understanding of how the immune system is controlled. IL-2 is a pleiotropic cytokine, and dissecting the signaling pathways that allow IL-2 to control the differentiation and homeostasis of both pro- and anti-inflammatory T cells is fundamental to determining the molecular details of immune regulation. The IL-2 receptor couples to JAK tyrosine kinases and activates the STAT5 transcription factors. However, IL-2 does much more than control transcriptional programs; it is a key regulator of T cell metabolic programs. The development of global phosphoproteomic approaches has expanded the understanding of IL-2 signaling further, revealing the diversity of phosphoproteins that may be influenced by IL-2 in T cells. However, it is increasingly clear that within each T cell subset, IL-2 will signal within a framework of other signal transduction networks that together will shape the transcriptional and metabolic programs that determine T cell fate.

Facile discovery of surrogate cytokine agonists.

Cytokines are powerful immune modulators that initiate signaling through receptor dimerization, but natural cytokines have structural limitations as therapeutics. We present a strategy to discover cytokine surrogate agonists by using modular ligands that exploit induced proximity and receptor dimer geometry as pharmacological metrics amenable to high-throughput screening. Using VHH and scFv to human interleukin-2/15, type-I interferon, and interleukin-10 receptors, we generated combinatorial matrices of single-chain bispecific ligands that exhibited diverse spectrums of functional activities, including potent inhibition of SARS-CoV-2 by surrogate interferons. Crystal structures of IL-2R:VHH complexes revealed that variation in receptor dimer geometries resulted in functionally diverse signaling outputs. This modular platform enabled engineering of surrogate ligands that compelled assembly of an IL-2R/IL-10R heterodimer, which does not naturally exist, that signaled through pSTAT5 on T and natural killer (NK) cells. This "cytokine med-chem" approach, rooted in principles of induced proximity, is generalizable for discovery of diversified agonists for many ligand-receptor systems.

TOP1 inhibition therapy protects against SARS-CoV-2-induced lethal inflammation.

The ongoing pandemic caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is currently affecting millions of lives worldwide. Large retrospective studies indicate that an elevated level of inflammatory cytokines and pro-inflammatory factors are associated with both increased disease severity and mortality. Here, using multidimensional epigenetic, transcriptional, in vitro, and in vivo analyses, we report that topoisomerase 1 (TOP1) inhibition suppresses lethal inflammation induced by SARS-CoV-2. Therapeutic treatment with two doses of topotecan (TPT), an FDA-approved TOP1 inhibitor, suppresses infection-induced inflammation in hamsters. TPT treatment as late as 4 days post-infection reduces morbidity and rescues mortality in a transgenic mouse model. These results support the potential of TOP1 inhibition as an effective host-directed therapy against severe SARS-CoV-2 infection. TPT and its derivatives are inexpensive clinical-grade inhibitors available in most countries. Clinical trials are needed to evaluate the efficacy of repurposing TOP1 inhibitors for severe coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in humans.

Synergism of TNF-α and IFN-γ Triggers Inflammatory Cell Death, Tissue Damage, and Mortality in SARS-CoV-2 Infection and Cytokine Shock Syndromes.

COVID-19 is characterized by excessive production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and acute lung damage associated with patient mortality. While multiple inflammatory cytokines are produced by innate immune cells during SARS-CoV-2 infection, we found that only the combination of TNF-α and IFN-γ induced inflammatory cell death characterized by inflammatory cell death, PANoptosis. Mechanistically, TNF-α and IFN-γ co-treatment activated the JAK/STAT1/IRF1 axis, inducing nitric oxide production and driving caspase-8/FADD-mediated PANoptosis. TNF-α and IFN-γ caused a lethal cytokine shock in mice that mirrors the tissue damage and inflammation of COVID-19, and inhibiting PANoptosis protected mice from this pathology and death. Furthermore, treating with neutralizing antibodies against TNF-α and IFN-γ protected mice from mortality during SARS-CoV-2 infection, sepsis, hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis, and cytokine shock. Collectively, our findings suggest that blocking the cytokine-mediated inflammatory cell death signaling pathway identified here may benefit patients with COVID-19 or other infectious and autoinflammatory diseases by limiting tissue damage/inflammation.

COVID-19 immune features revealed by a large-scale single-cell transcriptome atlas.

A dysfunctional immune response in coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) patients is a recurrent theme impacting symptoms and mortality, yet a detailed understanding of pertinent immune cells is not complete. We applied single-cell RNA sequencing to 284 samples from 196 COVID-19 patients and controls and created a comprehensive immune landscape with 1.46 million cells. The large dataset enabled us to identify that different peripheral immune subtype changes are associated with distinct clinical features, including age, sex, severity, and disease stages of COVID-19. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) RNA was found in diverse epithelial and immune cell types, accompanied by dramatic transcriptomic changes within virus-positive cells. Systemic upregulation of S100A8/A9, mainly by megakaryocytes and monocytes in the peripheral blood, may contribute to the cytokine storms frequently observed in severe patients. Our data provide a rich resource for understanding the pathogenesis of and developing effective therapeutic strategies for COVID-19.

Multiple Signaling Roles of CD3ε and Its Application in CAR-T Cell Therapy.

A T cell receptor (TCR) mediates antigen-induced signaling through its associated CD3ε, δ, γ, and ζ, but the contributions of different CD3 chains remain elusive. Using quantitative mass spectrometry, we simultaneously quantitated the phosphorylation of the immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation motif (ITAM) of all CD3 chains upon TCR stimulation. A subpopulation of CD3ε ITAMs was mono-phosphorylated, owing to Lck kinase selectivity, and specifically recruited the inhibitory Csk kinase to attenuate TCR signaling, suggesting that TCR is a self-restrained signaling machinery containing both activating and inhibitory motifs. Moreover, we found that incorporation of the CD3ε cytoplasmic domain into a second-generation chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) improved antitumor activity of CAR-T cells. Mechanistically, the Csk-recruiting ITAM of CD3ε reduced CAR-T cytokine production whereas the basic residue rich sequence (BRS) of CD3ε promoted CAR-T persistence via p85 recruitment. Collectively, CD3ε is a built-in multifunctional signal tuner, and increasing CD3 diversity represents a strategy to design next-generation CAR.

Loss of Bcl-6-Expressing T Follicular Helper Cells and Germinal Centers in COVID-19.

Humoral responses in coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) are often of limited durability, as seen with other human coronavirus epidemics. To address the underlying etiology, we examined post mortem thoracic lymph nodes and spleens in acute SARS-CoV-2 infection and observed the absence of germinal centers and a striking reduction in Bcl-6+ germinal center B cells but preservation of AID+ B cells. Absence of germinal centers correlated with an early specific block in Bcl-6+ TFH cell differentiation together with an increase in T-bet+ TH1 cells and aberrant extra-follicular TNF-α accumulation. Parallel peripheral blood studies revealed loss of transitional and follicular B cells in severe disease and accumulation of SARS-CoV-2-specific "disease-related" B cell populations. These data identify defective Bcl-6+ TFH cell generation and dysregulated humoral immune induction early in COVID-19 disease, providing a mechanistic explanation for the limited durability of antibody responses in coronavirus infections, and suggest that achieving herd immunity through natural infection may be difficult.

Cellular spermine targets JAK signaling to restrain cytokine-mediated autoimmunity.

Prolonged activation of the type I interferon (IFN-I) pathway leads to autoimmune diseases such as systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). Metabolic regulation of cytokine signaling is critical for cellular homeostasis. Through metabolomics analyses of IFN-ß-activated macrophages and an IFN-stimulated-response-element reporter screening, we identified spermine as a metabolite brake for Janus kinase (JAK) signaling. Spermine directly bound to the FERM and SH2 domains of JAK1 to impair JAK1-cytokine receptor interaction, thus broadly suppressing JAK1 phosphorylation triggered by cytokines IFN-I, IFN-II, interleukin (IL)-2, and IL-6. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from individuals with SLE showing decreased spermine concentrations exhibited enhanced IFN-I and lupus gene signatures. Spermine treatment attenuated autoimmune pathogenesis in SLE and psoriasis mice and reduced IFN-I signaling in monocytes from individuals with SLE. We synthesized a spermine derivative (spermine derivative 1 [SD1]) and showed that it had a potent immunosuppressive function. Our findings reveal spermine as a metabolic checkpoint for cellular homeostasis and a potential immunosuppressive molecule for controlling autoimmune disease.

Interleukin-2 signaling in the regulation of T cell biology in autoimmunity and cancer.

Interleukin-2 (IL-2) is a critical cytokine for T cell peripheral tolerance and immunity. Here, we review how IL-2 interaction with the high-affinity IL-2 receptor (IL-2R) supports the development and homeostasis of regulatory T cells and contributes to the differentiation of helper, cytotoxic, and memory T cells. A critical element for each T cell population is the expression of CD25 (Il2rα), which heightens the receptor affinity for IL-2. Signaling through the high-affinity IL-2R also reinvigorates CD8+ exhausted T (Tex) cells in response to checkpoint blockade. We consider the molecular underpinnings reflecting how IL-2R signaling impacts these various T cell subsets and the implications for enhancing IL-2-dependent immunotherapy of autoimmunity, other inflammatory disorders, and cancer.

Structural transitions enable interleukin-18 maturation and signaling.

Several interleukin-1 (IL-1) family members, including IL-1ß and IL-18, require processing by inflammasome-associated caspases to unleash their activities. Here, we unveil, by cryoelectron microscopy (cryo-EM), two major conformations of the complex between caspase-1 and pro-IL-18. One conformation is similar to the complex of caspase-4 and pro-IL-18, with interactions at both the active site and an exosite (closed conformation), and the other only contains interactions at the active site (open conformation). Thus, pro-IL-18 recruitment and processing by caspase-1 is less dependent on the exosite than the active site, unlike caspase-4. Structure determination by nuclear magnetic resonance uncovers a compact fold of apo pro-IL-18, which is similar to caspase-1-bound pro-IL-18 but distinct from cleaved IL-18. Binding sites for IL-18 receptor and IL-18 binding protein are only formed upon conformational changes after pro-IL-18 cleavage. These studies show how pro-IL-18 is selected as a caspase-1 substrate, and why cleavage is necessary for its inflammatory activity.

Type 2 cytokine signaling in macrophages protects from cellular senescence and organismal aging.

Accumulation of senescent cells in organs and tissues is a hallmark of aging and known to contribute to age-related diseases. Although aging-associated immune dysfunction, or immunosenescence, is known to contribute to this process, the underlying mechanism remains elusive. Here, we report that type 2 cytokine signaling deficiency accelerated aging and, conversely, that the interleukin-4 (IL-4)-STAT6 pathway protected macrophages from senescence. Mechanistically, activated STAT6 promoted the expression of genes involved in DNA repair both via homologous recombination and Fanconi anemia pathways. Conversely, STAT6 deficiency induced release of nuclear DNA into the cytoplasm to promote tissue inflammation and organismal aging. Importantly, we demonstrate that IL-4 treatment prevented macrophage senescence and improved the health span of aged mice to an extent comparable to senolytic treatment, with further additive effects when combined. Together, our findings support that type 2 cytokine signaling protects macrophages from immunosenescence and thus hold therapeutic potential for improving healthy aging.

Inflammatory Cytokine TNFα Promotes the Long-Term Expansion of Primary Hepatocytes in 3D Culture.

In the healthy adult liver, most hepatocytes proliferate minimally. However, upon physical or chemical injury to the liver, hepatocytes proliferate extensively in vivo under the direction of multiple extracellular cues, including Wnt and pro-inflammatory signals. Currently, liver organoids can be generated readily in vitro from bile-duct epithelial cells, but not hepatocytes. Here, we show that TNFα, an injury-induced inflammatory cytokine, promotes the expansion of hepatocytes in 3D culture and enables serial passaging and long-term culture for more than 6 months. Single-cell RNA sequencing reveals broad expression of hepatocyte markers. Strikingly, in vitro-expanded hepatocytes engrafted, and significantly repopulated, the injured livers of Fah-/- mice. We anticipate that tissue repair signals can be harnessed to promote the expansion of otherwise hard-to-culture cell-types, with broad implications.

TBK1 at the Crossroads of Inflammation and Energy Homeostasis in Adipose Tissue.

The noncanonical IKK family member TANK-binding kinase 1 (TBK1) is activated by pro-inflammatory cytokines, but its role in controlling metabolism remains unclear. Here, we report that the kinase uniquely controls energy metabolism. Tbk1 expression is increased in adipocytes of HFD-fed mice. Adipocyte-specific TBK1 knockout (ATKO) attenuates HFD-induced obesity by increasing energy expenditure; further studies show that TBK1 directly inhibits AMPK to repress respiration and increase energy storage. Conversely, activation of AMPK under catabolic conditions can increase TBK1 activity through phosphorylation, mediated by AMPK's downstream target ULK1. Surprisingly, ATKO also exaggerates adipose tissue inflammation and insulin resistance. TBK1 suppresses inflammation by phosphorylating and inducing the degradation of the IKK kinase NIK, thus attenuating NF-κB activity. Moreover, TBK1 mediates the negative impact of AMPK activity on NF-κB activation. These data implicate a unique role for TBK1 in mediating bidirectional crosstalk between energy sensing and inflammatory signaling pathways in both over- and undernutrition.

Non-Antibody-Secreting Functions of B Cells and Their Contribution to Autoimmune Disease.

B cells play multiple important roles in the pathophysiology of autoimmune disease. Beyond producing pathogenic autoantibodies, B cells can act as antigen-presenting cells and producers of cytokines, including both proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines. Here we review our current understanding of the non-antibody-secreting roles that B cells may play during development of autoimmunity, as learned primarily from reductionist preclinical models. Attention is also given to concepts emerging from clinical studies using B cell depletion therapy, which shed light on the roles of these mechanisms in human autoimmune disease.