Highlights of ophthalmological manifestations in newly diagnosed acute leukemia: a correlation with hematological parameters.

Acute leukemia is a hematological malignancy affecting different organ systems including the eye and orbit through direct infiltration of tissues or secondary to hematological abnormalities. Ophthalmological manifestations in acute leukemia are variable ranging from asymptomatic presentation to serious manifestations that can alter the disease course and treatment. The purpose of this study is to detect the incidence of different ophthalmological manifestations in newly diagnosed acute leukemia patients and to assess the relationship between ocular findings and hematological characteristics and the sequel of these neoplasms. A cross-sectional study with analytical components was conducted on 222 newly diagnosed acute myeloid and acute lymphoblastic leukemia patients who presented at Oncology Center Mansoura University (OCMU) between January 2022 and February 2023. All patients underwent a complete ophthalmic evaluation at Mansoura Ophthalmology Center (MOC). The mean age was 43.45 ± 17.35 years (range, 17-85), and M/F was 137 (61.7%)/85 (38.3%). One-hundred and forty-four (64.9%) had acute myeloid leukemia (AML), and 78 (35.1%) had acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL). Ophthalmic manifestations were detected in 96 patients (43.2%). Among them, 4 (1.8%) had poor visual acuity. Retinal hemorrhage (19.8%) and Roth spots (17.1%) were the most common ocular manifestations. Other ophthalmological manifestations observed were orbital involvement (3.2%), ocular motility issues (1.4%), subconjunctival hemorrhage (5.9%), conjunctival chemosis (0.9%),lid swelling (4.1%), lid ecchymosis (3.2%), lagophthalmos (0.5%), lid ptosis (1.8%), retinal venous congestion & tortuosity (4.1%), preretinal hemorrhage (3.2%), vitreous hemorrhage (3.2%), macular affection (2.3%), retinal infiltration (1.8%), exudative retinal detachment (ERD) (1.8%), cotton-wool spots (0.9%), retinal vein occlusion (0.5%), papilledema (2.8%), optic disc infiltration (1.8%), disc pallor (1.8%).AML patients were significantly associated with a higher frequency of ocular affection, retinal hemorrhages, and Roth spots (P 0.028, 0.003, and 0.046, respectively) compared to ALL patients. Retinal hemorrhage was statistically significantly associated with anemia (P 0.021). Ophthalmological manifestations of acute leukemia are heterogeneous; they can be detected at initial presentations or relapse. Some manifestations are asymptomatic, others can affect visual acuity or even alter the disease course. Cooperation between ophthalmologists and haemato-oncologists is crucial for recognizing ocular involvement and disease management.

Clinical and neuroimaging characteristics in mild-type infantile acute subdural hematoma: report of four cases.

PURPOSE: Infantile acute subdural hematoma (IASDH) has a limited age distribution and mostly benign clinical features. Mild-type IASDH has a stereotypical clinical course which, however, has been described in only a few studies. METHODS: Four male infants (aged 6-10 months; mean age: 7.5 months) were diagnosed as mild-type IASDH associated with retinal hemorrhage (RH) after suffering from occipital impact in a fall. The present case series reviews their clinical features and neuroimaging findings, including CT and MRI findings. RESULTS: All the infants fell backwards from a standing or sitting position onto a soft surface, striking the occipital region. They began crying on impact and then soon afterwards exhibited seizure-like activity or recurrent vomiting. CT and MRI revealed a thin, unclotted subdural hematoma (SDH) without mass effect or brain parenchymal abnormality. Various degrees of bilateral RH were observed. On the day of symptom onset, all infants returned to baseline, and follow-up more than 5 years revealed normal development with no deficits. CONCLUSIONS: Mild-type IASDH with retinal hemorrhage presents with seizure-like activity or recurrent vomiting preceded by crying after an occipital impact on a soft surface. The clinical course of IASDH is followed by rapid recovery on the day of symptom onset. CT and MRI findings reveal a small, unclotted SDH without a mass effect or cerebral parenchymal abnormality.

Clinical features of retinopathy after cardiopulmonary resuscitation.

PURPOSE: To evaluate the clinical patterns of retinopathy in patients who received cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) using wide-field fundus photography and slit-lamp fundus examination. METHODS: The medical records of patients aged ≥ 18 years who survived after receiving CPR and underwent wide-field fundus photography and slit-lamp fundus examination within 3 months were retrospectively analyzed. Fundus findings, including retinal hemorrhage and cotton wool spots, were investigated. The subjects were categorized into the retinopathy and non-retinopathy groups based on the presence of fundus findings. Systemic and CPR-related factors were analyzed to compare the two groups. RESULTS: Twenty eyes (10 patients) and 28 eyes (14 patients) were included in the retinopathy and non-retinopathy groups, respectively. The retinopathy group had longer CPR time than the non-retinopathy group (15 ± 11 min vs. 6 ± 5 min, p = 0.027). In the retinopathy group, retinal nerve fiber layer hemorrhage was observed in all eyes, and intraretinal hemorrhage was observed in 55% of the eyes. 80% of hemorrhages were located in the peripapillary or posterior pole. There were no interval changes in visual acuity, intraocular pressure, and central retinal thickness for 6 months. The average remission periods of retinal hemorrhage and cotton wool spots were 6.8 ± 2.6 month and 5.6 ± 2.1 months, respectively. No retinopathy progression was observed. CONCLUSION: The signs of retinopathy, such as retinal hemorrhages and cotton wool spots, which are found after CPR, mainly occur in patients who receive longer time of CPR and improve over time.

Utility of balanced steady-state field precession sequence in the evaluation of retinal and subdural hemorrhages in patients with abusive head trauma.

Abusive head trauma is the leading cause of physical child abuse deaths in children under 5 years of age in the United States. To evaluate suspected child abuse, radiologic studies are typically the first to identify hallmark findings of abusive head trauma including intracranial hemorrhage, cerebral edema, and ischemic injury. Prompt evaluation and diagnosis are necessary as findings may change rapidly. Current imaging recommendations include brain magnetic resonance imaging with the addition of a susceptibility weighted imaging (SWI) sequence which can detect additional findings that suggest abusive head trauma including cortical venous injury and retinal hemorrhages. However, SWI is limited due to blooming artifacts and artifacts from the adjacent skull vault or retroorbital fat, which can affect the evaluation of retinal, subdural, and subarachnoid hemorrhages. This work explores the utility of the high-resolution, heavily T2 weighted balanced steady-state field precession (bSSFP) sequence to identify and characterize retinal hemorrhage and cerebral cortical venous injury in children with abusive head trauma. The bSSFP sequence provides distinct anatomical images to improve the identification of retinal hemorrhage and cortical venous injury.

Deep Learning Approach for Differentiating Etiologies of Pediatric Retinal Hemorrhages: A Multicenter Study.

Retinal hemorrhages in pediatric patients can be a diagnostic challenge for ophthalmologists. These hemorrhages can occur due to various underlying etiologies, including abusive head trauma, accidental trauma, and medical conditions. Accurate identification of the etiology is crucial for appropriate management and legal considerations. In recent years, deep learning techniques have shown promise in assisting healthcare professionals in making more accurate and timely diagnosis of a variety of disorders. We explore the potential of deep learning approaches for differentiating etiologies of pediatric retinal hemorrhages. Our study, which spanned multiple centers, analyzed 898 images, resulting in a final dataset of 597 retinal hemorrhage fundus photos categorized into medical (49.9%) and trauma (50.1%) etiologies. Deep learning models, specifically those based on ResNet and transformer architectures, were applied; FastViT-SA12, a hybrid transformer model, achieved the highest accuracy (90.55%) and area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC) of 90.55%, while ResNet18 secured the highest sensitivity value (96.77%) on an independent test dataset. The study highlighted areas for optimization in artificial intelligence (AI) models specifically for pediatric retinal hemorrhages. While AI proves valuable in diagnosing these hemorrhages, the expertise of medical professionals remains irreplaceable. Collaborative efforts between AI specialists and pediatric ophthalmologists are crucial to fully harness AI's potential in diagnosing etiologies of pediatric retinal hemorrhages.

[Widefield optical coherence tomography as an effective method for detecting imperceptible flap retinal tears (clinical observation)]. / Shirokopol'naya opticheskaya kogerentnaya tomografiya ­ effektivnyi metod vyyavleniya klapannogo razryva setchatki (klinicheskoe nablyudenie).

Certain late peripheral ruptures after acute posterior vitreous detachment (PVD) may remain undetected during the initial examination of the fundus due to the presence of vitreous hemorrhages and other factors, but they can lead to rhegmatogenic retinal detachment in the future. Hence, it is necessary to conduct an additional thorough examination using optical coherence tomography (OCT) of the vitreoretinal interface periphery in the presence of tear predictors: retinal and vitreal hemorrhages, vitreous pigment cells ("tobacco dust") in the anterior segment of the vitreous body, as well as hyper-reflective dots ("starry sky") in the vitreous body according to OCT scans of patients with acute symptomatic detachment of the hyaloid membrane. The article presents the case of a patient with a clinically imperceptible flap tear detected during acute posterior vitreous detachment. Widefield OCT of the vitreoretinal interface was performed by "sliding" from the center to the periphery of the retina, and revealed a flap tear located next to a dot retinal hemorrhage. OCT scanning of the retinal periphery is an effective modern diagnostic method in the ophthalmological clinical practice.

Polymyositis and dermatomyositis: ocular manifestations and potential sight-threatening complications.

Dermatomyositis (DM) and polymyositis (PM) are idiopathic inflammatory myopathies characterized by progressive, symmetric, mainly proximal muscle weakness. DM is also characterized by cutaneous involvement. However, other clinical features, systemic involvement, histopathological findings, response to treatment, and prognosis, differ significantly. Although uncommon, ocular manifestations in DM and PM may potentially affect any structure within the eye. Notwithstanding being generally mild, ocular involvement in DM and PM may result in significant morbidity. Left untreated, significant retinal inflammation associated with hemorrhage and detachment may occur, leading to significant vision loss. This review aims to present an up-to-date overview for rheumatologists about the ocular involvement and potential complications of DM and PM and when to refer to the ophthalmologist to avoid sight-threatening complications.

The legal challenges to the diagnosis of shaken baby syndrome or how to counter 12 common fake news.

BACKGROUND: The shaken baby syndrome (SBS) is a common cause of severe traumatic lesions in infants. Although well established for almost five decades, SBS and its diagnosis are becoming more and more aggressively challenged in courts. These challenges feed on the scientific debate and controversies regarding the pathophysiology and the differential diagnoses, scientific uncertainty being readily exploited by specialized barristers. MATERIAL AND METHODS: In the present review, we analyze the most common challenges to the concept of SBS and its diagnosis, as well as the scientific evidence available to counter these challenges, the differential diagnoses, and how SBS can be diagnosed with confidence. RESULTS: We found that the pathophysiology of SBS is well documented, with stereotyped descriptions by perpetrators, in good correlation with experimental studies and computer models. SBS is a well-defined clinico-pathological entity with a characteristic constellation of lesions; with a rigorous evaluation protocol, its diagnosis can be made rapidly and with excellent accuracy beyond a reasonable doubt. CONCLUSION: It is important that medical experts master an extensive knowledge regarding the pathophysiology of the lesions of SBS, in particular infantile subdural hematomas, as well as other CSF-related conditions. This emphasizes the role that pediatric neurosurgeons should play in the clinical and medicolegal management of these patients.

The eye in child abuse.

Child physical abuse may result in a range of injuries to the globe and surrounding tissues. These injuries have varying degrees of specificity for abuse, and no pattern of injury is unique to abuse. Easily overlooked eye injuries in non-ambulatory infants often portend more severe abuse and require careful evaluation for occult injury when they are unexplained. Retinal hemorrhages are most often a sign of significant trauma and the severity of the hemorrhages generally parallels the severity of neurological trauma. Ophthalmologists contribute important data that more easily distinguish medical disease from trauma, but caution is needed in differentiating accidental from inflicted trauma. This distinction requires careful consideration of the complete clinical data and occasionally on additional law enforcement or child welfare investigation.

Automatic Diagnosis of Diabetic Retinopathy Stage Focusing Exclusively on Retinal Hemorrhage.

Background and Objectives: The present study evaluated the detection of diabetic retinopathy (DR) using an automated fundus camera focusing exclusively on retinal hemorrhage (RH) using a deep convolutional neural network, which is a machine-learning technology. Materials and Methods: This investigation was conducted via a prospective and observational study. The study included 89 fundus ophthalmoscopy images. Seventy images passed an image quality review and were graded as showing no apparent DR (n = 51), mild nonproliferative DR (NPDR; n = 16), moderate NPDR (n = 1), severe NPDR (n = 1), and proliferative DR (n = 1) by three retinal experts according to the International Clinical Diabetic Retinopathy Severity scale. The RH numbers and areas were automatically detected and the results of two tests-the detection of mild-or-worse NPDR and the detection of moderate-or-worse NPDR-were examined. Results: The detection of mild-or-worse DR showed a sensitivity of 0.812 (95% confidence interval: 0.680-0.945), specificity of 0.888, and area under the curve (AUC) of 0.884, whereas the detection of moderate-or-worse DR showed a sensitivity of 1.0, specificity of 1.0, and AUC of 1.0. Conclusions: Automated diagnosis using artificial intelligence focusing exclusively on RH could be used to diagnose DR requiring ophthalmologist intervention.

A meta-analysis of prognostic biomarkers in neonatal retinal hemorrhage.

PURPOSE: Neonatal retinal hemorrhage (RH) is a frequently occurring neonatal fundus condition and a very common ocular abnormality in neonates. Some of the key factors that influence the rate of RH are the mode of delivery, examination techniques, and time of examination after birth. The prognostic markers of severe RH are poorly known, making it difficult for an efficient diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment. Hence, to better understand the mechanism of disease, its study at the molecular level is required. Prognostic biomarkers are an essential tool for understanding the pathogenesis of the disease. In this paper, we present a meta-analysis of biomarkers to understand disease pathogenesis and support better diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment of neonatal RH. METHODS: The meta-analysis was carried out by following the recommendation of PRISMA. The relevant articles were crawled using a systematic keyword using MeSH terms from the MEDLINE, PubMed, and Scopus databases, which were subjected to manual screening for reported biomarkers by two independent reviewers. The obtained biomarkers were further analyzed for gene-disease association and functional enrichment analysis. RESULTS: Our meta-analysis suggests that genes ABCC6, Beta-APP, COL2A1, COL4A1, DNM2, ENPP1, IKBKG, ITGB2, IL-6, SELE, TREX1, and VEGFA are potential prognostic biomarkers associated with the neonatal RH. The gene-disease association and functional enrichment analysis suggest that few genes are associated with disease class "Vision"; however, some genes in the list are associated with the disease class "Pharmacogenomic," "Immune," "Renal." CONCLUSION: The identified prognostic gene biomarkers may help to understand disease pathogenesis and provide a better diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment of neonatal RH.

Magnetic resonance imaging of optic nerve and optic sheath hemorrhages in child abuse.

In abusive head trauma victims, optic nerves and optic sheath hemorrhages are commonly associated with retinal hemorrhages. Until now, optic nerve and optic nerve sheath hemorrhages related to abusive head trauma have been identified by exenteration and soft-tissue sectioning during postmortem examination. In 2013, we proposed the use of tailored high-resolution susceptibility-weighted imaging (SWI) MRI sequences to depict retinal hemorrhages in lieu of the gold standard dilated fundus exam, in select patients, and in 2017 we showed how the same high-resolution sequences used in the coronal plane can depict ruptured bridging veins in abusive head trauma. This paper describes the new potential diagnostic application of high-resolution axial and coronal SWI in the diagnosis of optic nerve and optic sheath hemorrhages.

Neuroimaging of retinal hemorrhage utilizing adjunct orbital susceptibility-weighted imaging.

Retinal hemorrhages are an integral part of the evaluation of abusive head trauma (AHT). Timely detection of retinal hemorrhage not only facilitates the diagnosis of AHT, but has the potential to prevent further abuse to the child and the siblings and to identify the abuser. The gold standard for diagnosing retinal hemorrhage is a dilated fundoscopy exam, which requires pharmacological dilation. As such, there is a small percentage of patients for whom the dilated fundoscopy exam might be delayed. Evolving literature suggests that MRI, specifically susceptibility-weighted imaging (SWI), of the orbits might provide an alternative diagnostic tool for noninvasively detecting retinal hemorrhages, particularly when there is a delay in administering the dilated fundoscopy exam. In this paper we review the utility of SWI for detecting retinal hemorrhages in abusive head trauma, including discussion of diagnostic limitations and future research.

Ocular hemorrhage secondary to thioguanine-associated veno-occlusive disease in a child with acute lymphoblastic leukemia in delayed intensification.

Hepatic VOD is a potentially fatal complication during stem cell transplantation and is rarely seen in the non-transplant setting. We report the case of a five-year-old boy who presented with visual complaints during delayed intensification phase of treatment for ALL. He was found to have bilateral retinal hemorrhages associated with profound thrombocytopenia due to chemotherapy. VOD was diagnosed based on EBMT criteria and was managed with supportive care. Despite resolution of VOD, his vision progressively deteriorated and resulted in blindness. This case highlights the significance of close monitoring of ALL patients in delayed intensification when they are at risk for developing VOD, the importance of refractory thrombocytopenia as a diagnostic feature and the potential for VOD to manifest with intraocular bleeding.

Baseline clinical features predict visual outcome in young patients with central retinal vein occlusion.

PURPOSE: To evaluate prognostic factors in young patients with central retinal vein occlusion (CRVO). METHODS: Retrospective case series. CRVO patients aged ≤ 50 and follow-up ≥ 6 months were enrolled. The best corrected visual acuity (BCVA) and central retinal thickness (CRT) at baseline, 3 months, 6 months, and last visit were documented. Severity of retinopathy was graded by comparing to standard photos. Prognostic factors associated with visual outcome at 6 months were evaluated by multiple linear regression models. RESULTS: A total of 73 eyes from 69 patients with mean age 37.6 ± 8.5 were enrolled. Forty-seven (68%) patients were male. The mean follow-up duration was 25.9 ± 23.0 months. LogMAR BCVA improved from 0.979 ± 0.785 at baseline to 0.594 ± 0.748 at the 6 months (p < 0.001) and CRT improved from 475 ± 222 µm to 299 ± 104 µm (p < 0.001). Forty-eight (66%) eyes required anti-vascular endothelial growth factor (anti-VEGF) treatment. The mean number of injections was 2.25 ± 1.41 in the first 6 months and 75% of eyes received ≦ 3 injections during the clinical course. The baseline BCVA (coefficient 0.518, p < 0.001), grade of retinal hemorrhage (coefficient 0.230, p = 0.006), grade of retinal venous engorgement (coefficient 0.238, p = 0.011), grade of optic disc edema (coefficient - 0.226, p = 0.005), and diabetes mellitus (coefficient 0.264, p = 0.047) were the independent factors associated with visual outcome at 6 months. CONCLUSIONS: Baseline clinical features are useful for the prediction of visual outcome at 6 months in young CRVO patients.

Proliferative retinopathy as a feature of Vogt Koyanagi Harada Disease: a report of two cases.

BACKGROUND: Proliferative retinopathy is an uncommon feature of Vogt Koyanagi Harada (VKH) disease which might indicate poor uveitis control in these patients. We aim to describe the clinical features and outcome of management of proliferative retinopathy in 2 patients with VKH. CASE PRESENTATION: 19 and 33 years old females with VKH presented with unilateral proliferative retinopathy. Both patients had neovascularization of the optic disc (NVDs) and one patient had neovascularizations elsewhere (NVEs) and preretinal hemorrhage. Both patients had exudative retinal detachments (ERD). Systemic steroids and immunomodulatory agents were successfully used to control inflammation and achieve regression. One patient developed fibrous tissue formation at the disc area as well as an epiretinal membrane formation, for which she had pars plana vitrectomy with membrane peeling. Both patients had controlled inflammation with stable vision. CONCLUSIONS: Proliferative retinopathy can present variably in VKH patients and indicates persistent inflammation which is incompletely controlled. Proper uveitis control is sufficient to achieve regression of retinal neovascularization.

Routine funduscopy in immune thrombocytopenic purpura-is it really necessary?

Immune thrombocytopenic purpura (ITP) is a common cause of symptomatic thrombocytopenia in children, most of whom present with cutaneous and mucosal bleeding. Complications, such as intracranial hemorrhage and occult hemorrhage from various sites, are rare, and retinal hemorrhage is exceptionally rare. Our institutional clinical practice guidelines for managing ITP in the pediatric emergency department (PED) include routine funduscopy. The aim of this retrospective case series is to provide evidence-based recommendations for a tertiary care PED work-up of ITP, with special emphasis on the guidelines for funduscopy. The medical records of all pediatric patients diagnosed with ITP over a 4-year period (2013-2016) who had a platelet count < 50,000/mm3 were retrieved and reviewed. Seventy-five patients with thrombocytopenia (platelet count < 50,000/mm3) were diagnosed as having ITP in the PED. Sixty-one (79%) of these patients underwent funduscopy and retinal hemorrhage was ruled out in all of them, indicating that retinal hemorrhage as a complication of ITP is very rare.Conclusion: Our data suggest that funduscopy should not be performed routinely on pediatric ITP patients, but rather be reserved for those who present with concurrent anemia or visual complaints. What is Known: • Many internal institutional protocols in Israel call for retinal hemorrhage bleeding surveillance in work up of ITP. Our study found no case of ITP with retinal bleeding. What is New: • Many internal institutional protocols in Israel call for retinal hemorrhage bleeding surveillance in work up of ITP. Our study found no case of ITP with retinal bleeding.

Susceptibility-weighted imaging of retinal hemorrhages in abusive head trauma.

BACKGROUND: Retinal hemorrhages are one of the most important supportive evidences for abusive head trauma (AHT). Susceptibility-weighted imaging (SWI) is highly suited to identify various forms of intracranial hemorrhage in AHT. However its utility in imaging retinal hemorrhage is not well established. OBJECTIVE: SWI is a sensitive sequence for identifying retinal hemorrhage on MRI. MATERIALS AND METHODS: In this retrospective analysis, 26 consecutive infants and young children with a suspected admission diagnosis of AHT underwent indirect ophthalmoscopy and brain MRI protocol for AHT along with SWI. Brain susceptibility-weighted images of 14 age-matched children were used as controls. For detecting retinal hemorrhage, susceptibility-weighted images of patients and controls were reviewed randomly and independently by two neuroradiologists who were blinded to the history and ophthalmology findings. A pediatric ophthalmologist graded the indirect ophthalmoscopy images. RESULTS: A diagnosis of AHT was confirmed in all 26 cases from a multidisciplinary meeting. Indirect ophthalmoscopy images were available in 21 cases. Ophthalmoscopy was positive for retinal hemorrhage in the right eye in 18 cases (85.7%) and in the left eye in 16 cases (76.2%). On SWI, retinal hemorrhage was identified in the right eye in 9/21 cases (42.8%) and in the left eye in 8/21 cases (38.1%) of AHT. Analysis of SWI in 21 cases of AHT demonstrated a sensitivity of 50%, specificity of 100%, positive predictive value of 100% and negative predictive value of 32% for detecting retinal hemorrhage. CONCLUSION: SWI is moderately sensitive and highly specific for identifying retinal hemorrhage in AHT. Further studies are needed to identify steps to improve the efficiency of SWI in detecting retinal hemorrhage.

Retinal vascular complications associated with interferon-ribavirin therapy for chronic hepatitis C: A population-based study.

PURPOSE: To investigate the incidence of retinal vascular complications and risk factors in patients with chronic hepatitis C receiving interferon-ribavirin therapy in Taiwan. METHODS: By using the Taiwan National Health Insurance Research Database, we compared the incidence of retinal vascular complications between patients receiving and not receiving interferon-ribavirin treatment. The exposure and nonexposure groups were randomly 1:1 frequency-matched according to age, sex, income, urbanization level, hypertension, and diabetes. Incidence of each retinal vascular complication and hazard ratios were assessed in the follow-up evaluation. RESULTS: Of the sample of 4736 patients, a total of 182 patients (3.84%) developed retinopathy during the follow-up period, of which 110 patients (4.65%) received interferon-ribavirin therapy and 72 patients (3.04%) did not receive interferon-ribavirin therapy. After multivariate adjustments, the risk of retinopathy during the follow-up period was 1.533 (95% confidence interval [CI], 1.139-2.064; P = .0048) times higher in patients receiving interferon-ribavirin therapy than in those in the comparison cohort not receiving the therapy. Patients with hypertension compared with those without it (adjusted hazard ratio, 1.530; 95% CI, 1.069-2.135; P = .0125) also had an increased risk of retinopathy. CONCLUSIONS: Interferon-ribavirin therapy was associated with a 53.3% increased risk of retinal vascular complications compared with not receiving the therapy. Regular ophthalmologic examination is essential for patients receiving interferon-ribavirin, particularly those with hypertension.