Edema Induced by a Crotalus durissus terrificus Venom Serine Protease (Cdtsp 2) Involves the PAR Pathway and PKC and PLC Activation.

Snake venom serine proteases (SVSPs) represent an essential group of enzymatic toxins involved in several pathophysiological effects on blood homeostasis. Some findings suggest the involvement of this class of enzymatic toxins in inflammation. In this paper, we purified and isolated a new gyroxin isoform from the Crotalus durissus terrificus (Cdt) venom, designated as Cdtsp 2, which showed significant proinflammatory effects in a murine model. In addition, we performed several studies to elucidate the main pathway underlying the edematogenic effect induced by Cdtsp 2. Enzymatic assays and structural analysis (primary structure analysis and three-dimensional modeling) were closely performed with pharmacological assays. The determination of edematogenic activity was performed using Cdtsp 2 isolated from snake venom, and was applied to mice treated with protein kinase C (PKC) inhibitor, phospholipase C (PLC) inhibitor, dexamethasone (Dexa), antagonists for protease-activated receptors (PARs), or saline (negative control). Additionally, we measured the levels of cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2), malondialdehyde (MDA), and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2). Cdtsp 2 is characterized by an approximate molecular mass of 27 kDa, an isoelectric point (pI) of 4.5, and significant fibrinolytic activity, as well as the ability to hydrolyze Nα-benzoyl-l-arginine 4-nitroanilide (BAPNA). Its primary and three-dimensional structures revealed Cdtsp 2 as a typical snake venom serine protease that induces significant edema via the metabolism of arachidonic acid (AA), involving PARs, PKC, PLC, and COX-2 receptors, as well as inducing a significant increase in MDA levels. Our results showed that Cdtsp 2 is a serine protease with significant enzymatic activity, and it may be involved in the degradation of PAR1 and PAR2, which activate PLC and PKC to mobilize AA, while increasing oxidative stress. In this article, we provide a new perspective for the role of SVSPs beyond their effects on blood homeostasis.

Carbon monoxide releasing molecule-2 inhibition of snake venom thrombin-like activity: novel biochemical "brake"?

A complication of defibrinogenation therapy with snake venom enzymes such as ancrod is hypofibrinogenemia associated bleeding secondary to no human-derived inhibitor being available to inactivate or diminish the activity of such enzymes. Of interest, ancrod contains a critical histidine residue without which enzymatic activity is inhibited, and carbon monoxide has been demonstrated to inhibit biomolecular function by interacting with histidine moieties in ion channels. We tested the hypothesis that exposure of three different snake venoms containing serine proteases with thrombin-like activity (which included ancrod) to carbon monoxide derived from carbon monoxide releasing molecule-2 would diminish their effects on plasmatic coagulation as assessed by thrombelastography. In the case of the Malayan pit viper and Eastern diamondback rattlesnake venoms, carbon monoxide diminished the effects of thrombin-like activity. In contrast, timber rattlesnake venom demonstrated enhancement of "thrombin-generating" activity with simultaneous loss of thrombin-like activity in response to carbon monoxide exposure. These findings may serve as the rational basis for not just continuing to investigate the potential of snake venom enzymes as clinical defibrinogenating agents, but to also to assess the potential to stop such agents from becoming a catalytic "runaway train" by judicious application of a biochemical "brake" such as carbon monoxide.

Single chain antibody fragment with serine protease inhibitory property capable of neutralizing toxicity of Trimeresurus mucrosquamatus venom.

Trimeresurus mucrosquamatus (TM) is one of majorities of snake envenomation with necrotic and hemorrhagic toxin in Taiwan. In this study, chickens were used as an alternative animal model for immunization with TM venom. Using phage display technology to process four rounds of panning, selected single chain variable fragments (scFv) could specifically recognize TM venom proteins, which were later identified as a group of homogeneous venom serine protease. The specific scFv antibodies showed various inhibitory effects on sheep RBC lysis induced by TM venom using an indirect hemolytic assay in vitro. In addition, the survival times of mice were extended to certain degrees when treated with these scFv antibodies individually or in a combination. To elucidate the inhibitory mechanism, we used molecular modeling to build up the serine protease structure to simulate the possible interactions with scFv antibodies. The results suggested that the CDR-loop of the scFv antibodies (3S10 or 4S1) might bind at the 99-loop of venom serine protease so as to affect substrate access due to the partial collapse of the subsite S2 and the partial movement of the subsite S4. It is hoped these chicken-derived antibodies could be applied to develop diagnostic and therapeutic agents against snakebites.

Neutralising effects of small molecule toxin inhibitors on nanofractionated coagulopathic Crotalinae snake venoms.

Repurposing small molecule drugs and drug candidates is considered as a promising approach to revolutionise the treatment of snakebite envenoming. In this study, we investigated the inhibiting effects of the small molecules varespladib (nonspecific phospholipase A2 inhibitor), marimastat (broad spectrum matrix metalloprotease inhibitor) and dimercaprol (metal ion chelator) against coagulopathic toxins found in Crotalinae (pit vipers) snake venoms. Venoms from Bothrops asper, Bothrops jararaca, Calloselasma rhodostoma and Deinagkistrodon acutus were separated by liquid chromatography, followed by nanofractionation and mass spectrometry identification undertaken in parallel. Nanofractions of the venom toxins were then subjected to a high-throughput coagulation assay in the presence of different concentrations of the small molecules under study. Anticoagulant venom toxins were mostly identified as phospholipases A2, while procoagulant venom activities were mainly associated with snake venom metalloproteinases and snake venom serine proteases. Varespladib was found to effectively inhibit most anticoagulant venom effects, and also showed some inhibition against procoagulant toxins. Contrastingly, marimastat and dimercaprol were both effective inhibitors of procoagulant venom activities but showed little inhibitory capability against anticoagulant toxins. The information obtained from this study aids our understanding of the mechanisms of action of toxin inhibitor drug candidates, and highlights their potential as future snakebite treatments.

Serine protease isoforms in Gloydius intermedius venom: Full sequences, molecular phylogeny and evolutionary implications.

Nine distinct venom serine proteases (vSPs) of Gloydius intermedius were studied by transcriptomic, sub-proteomic and phylogenetic analyses. Their complete amino acid sequences were deduced after Expression Sequence Tag (EST) analyses followed by cDNA cloning and sequencing. These vSPs appear to be paralogs and contain the catalytic triads and 1-4 potential N-glycosylation sites. Their relative expression levels evaluated by qPCR were grossly consistent with their EST hit-numbers. The major vSPs were purified by HPLC and their N-terminal sequences matched well to the deduced sequences, while fragments of the minor vSPs were detected by LC-MS/MS identification. Specific amidolytic activities of the fractions from HPLC and anion exchange separation were assayed using four chromogenic substrates, respectively. Molecular phylogenetic tree based on the sequences of these vSPs and their orthologs revealed six major clusters, one of them covered four lineages of plasminogen activator like vSPs. N-glycosylation patterns and variations for the vSPs are discussed. The high sequence similarities between G. intermedius vSPs and their respective orthologs from American pitvipers suggest that most of the isoforms evolved before Asian pitvipers migrated to the New World. Our results also indicate that the neurotoxic venoms contain more kallikrein-like vSPs and hypotensive components than the hemorrhagic venoms. SIGNIFICANCE: Full sequences and expression levels of nine paralogous serine proteases (designated as GiSPs) of Gloydius intermedius venom have been studied. A kallikrein-like enzyme is most abundant and four isoforms homologous to venom plasminogen-activators are also expressed in this venom. Taken together, the present and previous data demonstrate that the neurotoxic G. intermedius venoms contain more hypotensive vSPs relative to other hemorrhagic pitviper venoms and the pitviper vSPs are highly versatile and diverse. Their structure-function relationships remain to be explored and compared. A novel, simplified phylogenetic tree based on the sequences of GiSPs and their closely related orthologs from other pitvipers reveals six major subtypes and offers a better understanding of vSP duplication and evolution in pitvipers of both the Old and New Worlds. It is well known that specific vSPs are potential therapeutic or diagnostic agents that target the plasma proteins or coagulation factors. Our results not only render deeper insights into the variation and evolution of vSPs, but may help to choose right venoms for the development of better therapeutic leads.