Cartilaginous Fishes Provide Insights into the Origin, Diversification, and Sexually Dimorphic Expression of Vertebrate Estrogen Receptor Genes.

ABSTRACT

Vertebrate estrogen receptors (ERs) perform numerous cell signaling and transcriptional regulatory functions. ERɑ (Esr1) and ERß (Esr2) likely evolved from an ancestral receptor that duplicated and diverged at the protein and cis-regulatory levels, but the evolutionary history of ERs, including the timing of proposed duplications, remains unresolved. Here we report on identification of two distinct ERs in cartilaginous fishes and demonstrate their orthology to ERα and ERß. Phylogenetic analyses place the ERα/ERß duplication near the base of crown gnathostomes (jawed vertebrates). We find that ERα and ERß from little skate (Leucoraja erinacea) and mammals share key subtype-specific residues, indicating conserved protein evolution. In contrast, jawless fishes have multiple non-orthologous Esr genes that arose by parallel duplications. Esr1 and Esr2 are expressed in subtype-specific and sexually dimorphic patterns in skate embryos, suggesting that ERs might have functioned in sexually dimorphic development before the divergence of cartilaginous and bony fishes.